LIGNOPHYTA

Plant a shrub or tree; true roots +, origin endogeneous, root cap +, apex multicellular; endodermis +; shoot apical meristem multicellular; lateral meristems +, cork cambium producing cork abaxially, vascular cambium producing phloem abaxially and xylem adaxially; lamina with mean venation density 1.8 mm/mm² (to 5 mm/mm²).

EXTANT SEED PLANTS/SPERMATOPHYTA

Plant woody, evergreen; nicotinic acid metabolised to trigonelline, (cyanogenesis via tyrosine pathway); primary cell walls rich in xyloglucans and/or glucomannans, 25-30% pectin [Type I walls]; lignins derived from (some) sinapyl and particularly coniferyl alcohols, thus containing p-hydroxyphenyl and guaiacyl lignin units, so no Maüle reaction; root xylem exarch, cork cambium deep seated; arbuscular mycorrhizae +; shoot apical meristem interface specific plasmodesmatal network; stem with vascular tissue around central pith [eustele], vascular bundles with interfascicular tissue, ectophloic, endodermis 0, xylem endarch; wood homoxylous, tracheids and rays alone, tracheid/tracheid pits circular, bordered; mature sieve tube/cell lacking functioning nucleus, sieve tube plastids with starch grains; phloem fibres +; stem cork cambium superficial; branches exogenous; leaves with single trace from vascular sympodium ["nodes 1:1"]; vascular bundles collateral [stem: phloem external; leaf: phloem abaxial]; stomata morphology?, pore opening controlled by abscisic acid; leaves with petiole and lamina, spiral, development basipetal, blade simple; axillary buds +, not associated with all leaves; prophylls two, lateral; plant heterosporous, sporangia borne on sporophylls; microsporophylls aggregated in indeterminate cones/strobili; true pollen +, grains mono[ana]sulcate, exine and intine homogeneous; ovules unitegmic, parietal tissue 2+ cells across, megaspore tetrad tetrahedral, only one megaspore develops, megasporangium indehiscent; male gametophyte development first endo- then exosporic, tube developing from distal end of grain, to ca 2 mm from receptive surface to egg, gametes two, developing after pollination, with cell walls, flagellae numerous; ovules increasing considerably in size between pollination and fertilization, female gametophyte endosporic, initially syncytial, walls then surrounding individual nuclei; seeds "large" [ca 8 mm³], but not much bigger than ovule, with morphological dormancy; embryo cellular ab initio, endoscopic, plane of first cleavage of zygote transverse, suspensor +, short-minute, embryo straight, shoot and root at opposite ends [allorrhizic], white, cotyledons 2; plastid transmission maternal; ycf2 gene in inverted repeat, two copies of LEAFY gene, PHY gene duplications [three - [BP [A/N + C/O]] - copies], nrDNA with 5.8S and 5S rDNA in separate clusters; mitochondrial nad1 intron 2 and coxIIi3 intron and trans-spliced introns present.

MAGNOLIOPHYTA

Lignans, O-methyl flavonols, dihydroflavonols, triterpenoid oleanane, non-hydrolysable tannins, quercetin and/or kaempferol +, apigenin and/or luteolin scattered, [cyanogenesis in ANITA grade?], S [syringyl] lignin units common, positive Maüle reaction [syringyl:guaiacyl ratio more than 2-2.5:1], and hemicelluloses as xyloglucans; root apical meristem intermediate-open; root vascular tissue oligarch [di- to pentarch], lateral roots arise opposite or immediately to the side of [when diarch] xylem poles; origin of epidermis with no clear pattern [probably from inner layer of root cap], trichoblasts [differentiated root hair-forming cells] 0, exodermis +; shoot apex with tunica-corpus construction, tunica 2-layered; reaction wood ?, associated gelatinous fibres [g-fibres] with innermost layer of secondary cell wall rich in cellulose and poor in lignin; starch grains simple; primary cell wall mostly with pectic polysaccharides, poor in mannans; tracheid:tracheid [end wall] plates with scalariform pitting, wood parenchyma +; sieve tubes enucleate, sieve plate with pores (0.1-)0.5-10< µm across, cytoplasm with P-proteins, cytoplasm not occluding pores of sieve plate, companion cell and sieve tube from same mother cell; sugar transport in phloem passive; nodes unilacunar [1:?]; stomata brachyparacytic [ends of subsidiary cells level with ends of pore], outer stomatal ledges producing vestibule; lamina formed from the primordial leaf apex, margins toothed, development of venation acropetal, secondary veins pinnate, overall growth ± diffuse, venation hierarchical, fine venation reticulate, veins (1.7-)4.1(-5.7) mm/mm², endings free; most/all leaves with axillary buds; flowers perfect, pedicellate, ± haplomorphic, parts spiral [esp. the A], free, numbers unstable, development in general centripetal; P not sharply differentiated, with a single trace, outer members not enclosing the rest of the bud, often smaller than inner members; A many, filament not sharply distinguished from anther, stout, broad, with a single trace, anther introrse, tetrasporangiate, sporangia in two groups of two [dithecal], ± embedded in the filament, with at least outer secondary parietal cells dividing, each theca dehiscing longitudinally, endothecium +, endothecial cells elongated at right angles to long axis of anther; tapetum glandular, cells binucleate; microspore mother cells in a block, microsporogenesis successive, walls developing by centripetal furrowing; pollen subspherical, tectum continuous or microperforate, ektexine columellar, endexine thin, compact, lamellate only in the apertural regions; nectary 0; G superior, free, several, ascidiate, with postgenital occlusion by secretion, stylulus short, hollow, cavity not lined by distinct epidermal layer, stigma ± decurrent, dry [not secretory]; ovules few [?1]/carpel, marginal, anatropous, bitegmic, micropyle endostomal, outer integument 2-3 cells across, often largely subdermal in origin, inner integument 2-3 cells across, often dermal in origin, parietal tissue 1-3 cells across [crassinucellate], nucellar cap?; megasporocyte single, hypodermal, megaspore tetrad linear, functional megaspore chalazal, lacking sporopollenin and cuticle; female gametophyte four-celled [one module, nucleus of egg cell sister to one of the polar nuclei]; ovule not increasing in size between pollination and fertilization; pollen binucleate at dispersal, male gametophyte trinucleate, germinating in less than 3 hours, pollination siphonogamous, tube elongated, growing between cells, growth rate 20-20,000 µm/hour, outer wall pectic, inner wall callose, with callose plugs, penetration of ovules via micropyle [porogamous], whole process takes ca 18 hours, distance to first ovule 1.1-2.1 mm; male gametes lacking cell walls, flagellae 0, double fertilization +, ovules aborting unless fertilized; P deciduous in fruit; seed exotestal, becoming much larger than ovule at time of fertilization; endosperm diploid, cellular [micropylar and chalazal domains develop differently, first division oblique, micropylar end initially with a single large cell, divisions uniseriate, chalazal cell smaller, divisions in several planes], copious, oily and/or proteinaceous; embryogenesis cellular; germination hypogeal, seedlings/young plants sympodial; Arabidopsis-type telomeres [(TTTAGGG)_n]; whole genome duplication, ndhB gene 21 codons enlarged at the 5' end, single copy of LEAFY and RPB2 gene, knox genes extensively duplicated [A1-A4], AP1/FUL gene, paleo AP3 and PI genes [paralogous B-class genes] +, with "DEAER" motif, SEP3/LOFSEP and three copies of the PHY gene, [PHYB [PHYA + PHYC]].

[NYMPHAEALES [AUSTROBAILEYALES [[CHLORANTHALES + MAGNOLIIDS] [MONOCOTS [CERATOPHYLLALES + EUDICOTS]]]]]: vessels +, elements with elongated scalariform perforation plates; wood fibres +; axial parenchyma diffuse or diffuse-in-aggregates; pollen monosulcate [anasulcate], tectum reticulate-perforate [here?]; ?genome duplication; "DEAER" motif in AP3 and PI genes lost, gaps in these genes.

[AUSTROBAILEYALES [[CHLORANTHALES + MAGNOLIIDS] [MONOCOTS [CERATOPHYLLALES + EUDICOTS]]]]: essential oils in specialized cells [lamina and P ± pellucid-punctate]; tension wood 0; tectum reticulate; anther wall with outer secondary parietal cell layer dividing; carpels plicate; nucellar cap + [character lost where in eudicots?]; 12BP [4 amino acids] deletion in P1 gene.

[[CHLORANTHALES + MAGNOLIIDS] [MONOCOTS [CERATOPHYLLALES + EUDICOTS]]] / MESANGIOSPERMAE: benzylisoquinoline alkaloids +; polyacetate derived anthraquinones + [?level]; outer epidermal walls of root elongation zone with cellulose fibrils oriented transverse to root axis; P more or less whorled, 3-merous [possible positiion]; embryo sac bipolar, 8 nucleate, antipodal cells persisting; endosperm triploid; ?germination.

[MONOCOTS [CERATOPHYLLALES + EUDICOTS]]: (veins in lamina often 7-17mm/mm² or more [mean for eudicots 8.0]); (stamens opposite [two whorls of] P); (pollen tube growth fast).

[CERATOPHYLLALES + EUDICOTS]: ethereal oils 0.

EUDICOTS: myricetin, delphinidin scattered, asarone 0 [unknown in some groups, + in some asterids]; root epidermis derived from root cap [?Buxaceae, etc.]; nodes 3:3; stomata anomocytic; flowers (dimerous), cyclic; K/outer P members with three traces, "C" with a single trace; A few, (polyandry widespread, initial primordia 5, 10, or ring, ± centrifugal), filaments fairly slender, anthers basifixed; microsporogenesis simultaneous, pollen tricolpate, apertures in pairs at six points of the young tetrad [Fischer's rule], cleavage centripetal, wall with endexine; G with complete postgenital fusion, stylulus/style solid [?here]; seed coat?

[PROTEALES [TROCHODENDRALES [BUXALES + CORE EUDICOTS]]]: (axial/receptacular nectary +).

[TROCHODENDRALES [BUXALES + CORE EUDICOTS]]: benzylisoquinoline alkaloids 0; euAP3 + TM6 genes [duplication of paleoAP3 gene: B class], mitochondrial rps2 gene lost.

[BUXALES + CORE EUDICOTS]: ?

CORE EUDICOTS / GUNNERIDAE: (ellagic and gallic acids +); leaf margins serrate; compitum + [one place]; micropyle?; palaeohexaploidy [gamma triplication], PI-dB motif +, small deletion in the 18S ribosomal DNA common.

[ROSIDS ET AL. + ASTERIDS ET AL.] / PENTAPETALAE: root apical meristem closed; (cyanogenesis also via [iso]leucine, valine and phenylalanine pathways); flowers rather stereotyped: 5-merous, parts whorled; P = calyx + corolla, the calyx enclosing the flower in bud, sepals with three or more traces, petals with a single trace; stamens = 2x K/C, in two whorls developing internally/adaxially to the corolla whorl and successively alternating, (numerous, but then usually fasciculate and/or centrifugal); pollen tricolporate; G [5], G [3] also common, when [G 2], carpels superposed, compitum +, placentation axile, style +, stigma not decurrent; endosperm nuclear; fruit dry, dehiscent, loculicidal [when a capsule]; RNase-based gametophytic incompatibility system present; floral nectaries with CRABSCLAW expression.

[DILLENIALES [SAXIFRAGALES [VITALES + ROSIDS s. str.]]]: nodes 3:3; stipules + [usually apparently inserted on the stem].

[SAXIFRAGALES [VITALES + ROSIDS]] / ROSANAE Takhtajan / SUPERROSIDAE: ??

[VITALES + ROSIDS] / ROSIDAE: anthers articulated [± dorsifixed, transition to filament narrow, connective thin].

ROSIDS: (mucilage cells with thickened inner periclinal walls and distinct cytoplasm); embryo long; genome duplication; chloroplast infA gene defunct, mitochondrial coxII.i3 intron 0.

ROSID I / FABIDAE / [ZYGOPHYLLALES [the COM clade + the nitrogen-fixing clade]]: endosperm scanty.   Back to Main Tree

[FABALES [ROSALES [CUCURBITALES + FAGALES]]] / the nitrogen-fixing clade: (N-fixing by associated root-dwelling bacteria); tension wood +; seed exotestal.

Evolution. Divergence & Distribution. Wikström et al. (2001) dated the crown group to (91-)89(-87) m.y., while Moore et al. (2010: 95% highest posterior density) suggest ages of (107-)104(-100) m.y.

Ecology & Physiology. The ability to fix nitrogen is uncommon elsewhere in seed plants, although nitrogen-fixing blue-green algae are associated with Gunneraceae and Cycadales. However, in the nitrogen-fixing clade there are at least six independent establishments of symbioses with Frankia, a gram-positive actinomycete, and at least two more with rhizobia (see below) that result in the plant being able to fix nitrogen (e.g. Swensen 1996; Clawson et al. 2004). Nitrogen-fixing plants are usually not plants of closed lowland tropical rainforest, often being members of more open vegetation, even of early successional communities, in both tropical and temperate regions of the world; they are very important in the global nitrogen cycle.

Perhaps connected with nitrogen fixation is the fact that N-fixing taxa may also form root clusters of varying morphologies, and in some cases these have been shown to facilitate phosphorous uptake in P-poor soils (Lambers et al. 2006, 2012b). Species forming ectomycorrhizal associations are also common in the nitrogen-fixing clade, and this association has evolved at least seven times, but apparently not in Cucurbitales. Plants with ectomycorrhizae do not fix nitrogen.

Bacterial/Fungal Associations. Jeong et al. (1999) and Clawson et al. (2004) compared phylogenetic relationships within Frankia with those of its hosts. There is not a close parallel, indeed, Clawson et al. (2004) suggested that all three clades of Frankia that they recognised might have diverged before the evolution of the angiosperms, while Jeong et al. (199) thought that the Frankia clades had diverged more recently than the plant clades. For the considerable gene/genome divergence within Frankia, see Normand et al. (2006).

Intercellular penetration of the root epidermis by Frankia may be the plesiomorphic route of infection, occurring in both Rosales and Cucurbitales; in Fagales infection is through root hairs (Clawson et al. 2004). However, given the absence of strong phylogenetic structure in the group, details of how infection patterns map on to phylogeny are unclear (see also Soltis et al. 2005a). The situation is yet more complex. In Mimosa and some Faboideae, at least, ß-proteobacteria like Burkholderia phymatum and Cupriavidus also form nodules that fix nitrogen, while the α-proteobacteria, rhizobia, that form nodules in other Fabaceae occur in four separate clades, over a dozen "species" being involved (J. J. Doyle 1998; Moulin et al. 2001; Sprent 2002; Elliott et al. 2007; Bontemps et al. 2010). Rhizobia themselves can fix nitrogen only when in association with their host, and one of the components of the cofactor of the nitrogenase which actually fixes the nitrogen comes from the host legume (Hakoyama et al. 2009). Haemoglobin is intimately involved in helping preserve the largely oxygen free micro-environment the bacteria need for nitrogen fixation; a variety of haemoglobins are involved, including haemoglobin synthesized by Frankia (Vessey et al. 2004).

Although there is considerable variation in nodule morphology, this does not correlate with bacterium type. In general in Fabaceae the nodules arise from the cortex and have peripheral vascular tissue with bacterial infected cells in the center and are perhaps shoot-like structures (Hirsch & Larue 1997; Franche et al. 1998; Couzigou et al. 2012), while in all other nodules, whether associated with Frankia or rhizobia, the nodules are modified lateral roots, although they lack a root cap. There the vascular tissue is central, initiation of the nodule is pericyclic, and it is the cortical cells that contain bacteria (Gualtieri & Bisseling 2000; Raven & Edwards 2001; Vessey et al. 2004). However, recent work clearly shows that nodule origination in Faboideae occurs where lateral roots develop, although cortical cells may also be involved (op den Camp et al. 2011). Indeed, in nodule development in Faboideae there seems to have been co-option of genes originally involved in lateral root origination after a genome duplication event ca 54 m.y.a. (op den Camp et al. 2011); N-fixing clades such as Chamaecrista lack this duplication (Cannon et al. 2010), so presumably nodules form in a different way there.

Nitrogen fixation in this group of four orders is a classic example of a "tendency" or a predisposition (Vessey et al. 2004), and the possible molecular reasons for the restriction of these diverse bacterial associations to the N-fixing clade are being dissected. There is a relatively small plasmid-born "symbiosis island" that can be exchanged as a unit among bacteria and that enables nodulation to develop, although not all nodulation genes occur on the island (Sullivan & Ronson 1998; J. J. Doyle 1998). Particular legumes may select particular bacterial variants for nodulation, yet all the bacteria may have similar symbiosis islands (Parker 2012).

A number of the genes involved in the establishment of both the actinomycete and Rhizobium symbiosis are the same as those involved in establishing vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal associations, the "SYM" (symbiosis) pathway being involved in all (Parniske 2008; Bonfante & Genre 2010; Hocher et al. 2011). One of these genes, the symbiosis receptor kinase gene, exists in a particularly distinctive form in the N-fixing clade - and also in Tropaeolum, but not rice, tomato or poppy. This gene in the latter genera rescued mycorrhizal formation in defective forms of the gene in Fabaceae, but not nodule formation, whereas the Tropaeolum gene restored the ability to form nodules (Markmann et al. 2008; see also Chen et al. 2007, 2009; Gherbi et al. 2008; Yano et al. 2008; Markmann & Parniske 2009). There are also connections betwen the signalling genes involved in arbuscular mycorrhizae symbioses and rhizobial Nod factors involved in nodulation in legumes (Maillet et al. 2010; Op den Camp et al. 2010; Streng et al. 2011; Roberts et al. 2012), the rhizobia acquiring the nod gene by horizontal transfer (Suominen et al. 2001). Although Nod factors do not occur in actinorhizal associations, there is notable similarity at the transcriptional level in the genes involved in the establishment of endosymbioses in Casuarina, Alnus (both associates of actinorhiza), and legumes (Hocher et al. 2011).

Plant-Animal Interactions. There are associations of particular groups of butterflies and plants (as food sources for caterpillars) within Fabales and Rosales in particular (Ackery 1988, 1991). Indeed, it has been suggested, as by Scott (1985) and Janz and Nylin (1998; see also Braby & Trueman 2006) that the ancestral food plant for larvae of butterflies as a whole may perhaps have been in the rosid I group, or in Fabales, however, caterpillars are common in the latter only on Fabaceae and they are a fairly young (mostly Tertiary, see below) group. Malvales are another possibility (Ackery 1991), as are Rosids as a whole (e.g. Powell 1980; Berenbaum & Passoa 1999).

Chemistry, Morphology, etc. Whether or not the presence of stipules is plesiomorphic in the clade depends in part on its phylogeny, but there is clearly a variety of structures borne at the node - and nodal anatomy is also variable (see below: de Aguiar-Dias et al. 2011).

Phylogeny. For the limits of the N-fixing clade, a rather unexpected group, see Chase et al. (1993, 1999), Savolainen et al. (1997), Soltis et al. (1995b, 1997, 1998), and Swensen (1996). Although it was not recovered by some analyses of the complete chloroplast genome (Bausher et al. 2006), the poor sampling - no other rosid I taxa were included - may well be reponsible; the nitrogen-fixing clade was also found not to be monophyletic in Duarte et al. (2010) or in the genome-level analysis of Burleigh et al. (2011). The clade had little support in the mitochondrial matR analysis of Zhu et al. (2007), but support was much strengthened when two chloroplast genes were added; it was also monophyletic in the mitochondrial analysis of Qiu et al. (2010).

Relationships within the clade are unclear (e.g. Qiu et al. 2010; Xue et al. 2012), and Zhu et al. (2007) could not even recover a monophyletic Rosales using the mitochondrial matR gene; the other three orders were, however, all strongly supported. Sytsma et al. (2002) recovered a topology [Cucurbitales [Fabales [Fagales + Rosales]]], while in Zhu et al. (2007: four genes) the position of the first two was reversed, albeit in both studies there was little support for the topologies found. However, Ravi et al. (2007) examining data sets including 61 protein-coding genes (for only three orders) and just four genes (Fagales included) found good support for [Fabales + Rosales] and some support for the broader grouping [Cucurbitales [Fagales [Fabales + Rosales]]]. Apart from Fabales (three Fabaceae-Faboideae included), the other orders were represented by single exemplars. A [Fabales + Rosales] clade was also obtained by Jansen et al. (2007) and Moore et al. (2007), but no Fagales were included in these studies. In other analyses there is some support for a [Cucurbitales + Fagales] clade (see Chase et al. 1993; Setoguchi et al. 1999; Schwarzbach & Ricklefs 2000; Soltis et al. 2000, 2003a; Zhang et al. 2006). However, the support for the topology in the Summary Tree is quite strong (Moore et al. 2008; Soltis et al. 2011; Moore et al. 2011), but confirmation after e.g. increased taxon sampling would be comforting.

FABALES Bromhead  Main Tree, Synapomorphies.

Ellagic acid 0; vessel elements with simple perforation plates; wood often fluorescing; nodes?; styloids +; K initiation helical; C clawed; carpels free; embryo green. - 4 families, 754 genera, 20080 species.

Note: Possible apomorphies are now being added throughout the site; they are in bold. However, the actual level at which many of these features, particularly the more cryptic ones, should be assigned is unclear. This is because there is very considerable homoplasy, with variation within and between clades, for most characters. Furthermore, the basic information for all too many characters is very incomplete, often coming from taxa well embedded in the clade of interest and so making the position of any putative apomorphy uncertain. Then there is the not-so-trivial issue of how ancestral states are reconstructed...

Evolution. Divergence & Distribution. Fabales contain ca 9.6% eudicot diversity (Magallón et al. 1999), of which the bulk is made up of Fabaceae.

Wikström et al. (2001: relationships as above) date the origin of the clade to (91-)89(-87) m.y.a., diversification beginning (77-)74(-71) m.y.a. Fabaceae themselves, which contain the bulk of the species in the order, may not have begun diversifying for another 20 m.y. or so. The age of crown group Fabales was estimated as (90-)87(-84) or (75-)72(-69) m.y. (two penalized likelihood dates), the stem group ages being (109-)104(-99) and (92-)89(-86) m.y.; Bayesian relaxed clock estimates were slightly older, to 100 or 112 m.y. respectively (Wang et al. 2009: relationships are [Rosales [Fabales [Cucurbitales + Fagales]]]), while Magallón and Castillo (2009: relationships are [Fabales + Rosales] [Cucurbitales + Fagales]) gave ages of ca 101 and 101.3 m.y. for relaxed and constrained penalized likelihood estimates of stem Fabales.

Bello et al. (2012) suggest a number of apomorphies for Fabales; Krameria was used as the outgroup because people in the past had suggested similarities between it and Polygalaceae and most of the apomorphies listed are likely to be plesiomorphies. Despite the floral differences between Polygalaceae and Fabaceae, there are some developmental similarities between them (Prenner 2004d), however, the keel flowers in the two may have arisen independently (Bello et al. 2012).

Chemistry, Morphology, etc. The distribution of a number of features may be of systematic significance in this clade, but sampling is poor, and the problem is compounded by the uncertain phylogenetic relationships here. Variation in nodal anatomy within Surianaceae is correlated with presence/absence of stipules. Although styloids, along with druses, are reported from Surianaceae, Quillajaceae and Fabaceae, details of their distribution within Fabaceae are unclear; they are certainly quite common in Faboideae (Lersten & Horner 2005), apparently less so in the rest of the family. The rpl22 gene is in the nucleus in Polygalaceae and Fabaceae (i.e. it is absent from the chloroplast), but other members of the order have not been studied and its presence in other angiosperms is sporadic (J. J. Doyle et al. 1995). Pollen grains of Quillajaceae and some Surianaceae have exine protruding at the apertures, and these and some Fabaceae-Cercideae (although perhaps derived within that group?) have striate pollen (Banks et al. 2003; Claxton et al. 2005); these features are unlikely to be high-level apomorphies. It would be nice to know if Surianaceae or Quillajaceae had starchy endosperm, and more details of their chemistry are needed. Many Fabaceae-Faboideae have lost the rps16 gene, and it is also absent from Polygala (Downie & Palmer 1992: again, sampling).

Phylogeny. Fabales as circumscribed here were rather unexpected, but they are quite strongly supported (Morgan et al. 1994; Källersjö et al. 1998, etc.). Although Hilu et al. (2003) found Larrea (Zygophyllaceae) to be weakly associated with Fabaceae, they were the only Fabales included in their rbcL analysis.

Within Fabales, Persson (2001) suggested the relationships [Polygalaceae [Surianaceae [Quillajaceae + Fabaceae]]], but there was little support for this (see the tree in versions 1-6). Forest et al. (2002, see also Qiu et al. 2010) found weak support for the topology of the tree here, and Banks et al. (2008) also found strong support for the relationship [Quillajaceae [the rest]]. However, Wojciechowski et al. (2004: ?sampling) suggested the possibility of a [Surianaceae + Quillajaceae] grouping. The unrooted topology in Bruneau et al. (2008a) is [Polygalaceae [Quillajaceae + Surianaceae] Fabaceae]. Bello et al. (2009) in a careful analysis on matK and rbcL data, preferred the relationships [Polygalaceae [Fabaceae [Surianaceae + Quillajaceae]]] obtained in a maximum parsimony analysis, however, support was poor, and if anything was still poorer for any relationships obtained in Bayesian analyses of the same data. Wang et al. (2009) did not obtain well supported relationships in this clade in their twelve-gene analysis of the rosids, while in a megaphylogeny of angiosperms Smith et al. (2011) found some support for a clade [Quillajaceae + Fabaceae]. Relationships remained unclear in the study by Soltis et al. (2011). Bello returned to the problem and included morphological data with a two-gene data set. In various analyses [Surianaceae + Quillajaceae] were usually at least moderately supported, but support for Fabaceae and Polygalaceae as being successively sister to that pair was weak (Bello et al. 2012).

Includes Fabaceae, Polygalaceae, Quillajaceae, Surianaceae.

Synonymy: Caesalpiniales Martius, Cassiales Link, Mimosales Link, Polygalales Berchtold & J. Presl, Quillajales Doweld, Surianales Doweld

QUILLAJACEAE D. Don   Back to Fabales

Small evergreen tree; saponins, proanthodelphinidin, flavone C-glycosides +; cork cambium ?deep-seated; storying?; styloids in phloem +; nodes 1:3; petiole bundles arcuate, pericyclic fibres 0; mucilage cells +; hairs warty; leaves spiral, blade vernation conduplicate, margins toothed [hydathodal?], (entire), stipules petiolar; inflorescence terminal, cymose; hypanthium +; K valvate, nectary on lower half of K/hypanthium, C contorted, spathulate; A unidirectional in initiation, 5A opposite sepals above nectary + 5A opposite petals below nectary; pollen striate; G [5], deeply longitudinally ridged, opposite K, stigmatic zone elongated down short style branches; ovules several/carpel, pleurotropous, in two marginal rows, micropyle?, outer integument ?3 cells across, inner integument?; fruit strongly asymmetrically lobed, follicular, opening down both surfaces of the lobes, K moderately accrescent; seeds winged; testa with 3 outer layers thickened, sclerotic, tegmen disintegrating; endosperm type?, cotyledons investing radicle, conduplicate; n = 14, 17.

1/3. Temperate South America (map: from Donoso Z. 1994; Culham 2007). [Photo - Flower, Fruit.]

• Quillajaceae are vegetatively rather undistinguished with their spiral, serrate, stipulate leaves, although the conspicuous but rather distant teeth appear to be hydathodal. They may be readily recognised by their distinctive widely-open flowers in which the antesepalous stamens are borne on the outer edge of the conspicuous yellow disc some way up the sepals and the antepetalous stamens are borne inside the nectary near the base of the ovary. The petals are clawed and the strongly lobed fruits open down both the inner and outer surfaces of the lobes and contain winged seeds.

Chemistry, Morphology, etc. The leaves are amphistomatous. The flowers of Quillajaceae, with the distinctive arrangement of nectary and androecium, may be interpreted as having a hypanthium. Androecial development is unidirectional and is rather like that of Fabaceae (Bello et al. 2007/8); the carpels are definitely connate axially, but are largely free laterally, c.f. earlier versions of this site. There appear to be only three traces to each carpel, although Sterling (1969) noted that there were also "intermediate" bundles. Robertson (1974) noted that n = 17. Embryologically the family is poorly known.

See also Péchoutre (1902, as Rosaceae) for seed morphology, Hegnauer (1973, 1990, as Rosaceae) for chemistry, Sterling (1969) and Kania (1973) for gynoecial morphology, Lersten and Horner (2005) for vegetative anatomy, Kubitzki (2006b) for a general account, and Marchiori et al. (2009) for wood anatomy (intercellular canals, included phloem). Additional data from: Aronson 7897 (anatomy, embryo).

Previous Relationships. Quillaja was included in Rosaceae-Quillajoideae (Takhtajan 1997) or, more usually, in Spiraeaoideae, e.g. as Quillajeae (Robertson 1974). It is indeed superficially quite similar to the South American Kageneckia (Spiraeaoideae), but wood anatomical data, etc., suggest that it should be removed from Rosaceae (Lotova & Timonin 1999; c.f. Zhang 1992).

[Fabaceae [Surianaceae + Polygalaceae]]: suspensor persistent, also connected to wall of embryo sac [?Surianaceae].

Evolution. Divergence & Distribution. The crown group age of this clade is 79-74 m.y. (Wikström et al. 2004).

FABACEAE Lindley, nom. cons.//LEGUMINOSAE Jussieu, nom. cons. et nom. alt.   Back to Fabales

Trees to annual herbs; lectins [haemagglutinins] and gums esp. in seeds, 5-deoxyflavonoids, C-glycosylflavonoids, pinitol [cyclitol] +; (ectomycorrhizae scattered); cork also in outer cortex; cambium storied; secretory cells common, sieve tube plastids with protein crystals (and/or starch, or simply starch); nodes 3:3; cuticle wax platelets as rosettes; stomata various; branching from previous flush; colleters +, hairs often uniseriate (mesifixed); leaves compound, apex of petiole and petiolules pulvinate, leaflets stipellate or not, opposite (alternate), vernation conduplicate, (glandular-punctate), (margins lobed, toothed), (secondary veins palmate); inflorescence racemose; flowers monosymmetric, inverted [median sepal abaxial], (3-)5(-6)-merous, floral developmental sequence K-G-C-outer whorl A-inner whorl A [G initiation/development much advanced], hypanthium +; C with adaxial-median member internal [descending cochleate], (adaxial-median C with patterning/different in colour from the other C); A unidirectional in initiation, (2-)10(-many); G 1, stipitate, stylulus long, (hollow), stigma expanded or not, wet; ovules several/carpel, one-ranked, micropyle zig-zag, outer integument 2-10 cells across, inner integument 2-3 cells across, parietal tissue to 5 cells across, nucellar cap ca 3 cells across, vascular bundle in antiraphe, funicle long; (megaspore mother cells several), chalazal embryo haustorium +; fruit follicular, dehiscing abaxially also; seed symmetric, pleurogram + [area of cells with a deep-seated linea lucida] + (0), linea fissura + [fine line delimiting pleurogram], ± circular/oval [closed; ?level]; exotesta palisade, linea lucida separating much thickened outer anticlinal walls from the thinner inner walls, mesotesta of stellate cells, (seed coat undistinguished), tegmen crushed; (thick-walled endosperm with galactomannans [Schleimendosperm]), chalazal endosperm haustoria + [?level]; embryo ± straight, cotyledons investing radicle; rpl22 gene transferred from chloroplast to nucleus.

745/19500 - discussed in eight or so groups below. World-wide.

1a. Cercideae

Trees to lianes, climbing by branch tendrils; leaves apparently simple, bilobed or not (bifoliolate), with single pulvinus; pollen striate; (funicle short); (seeds asymmetric); n = 7, (13), 14, etc.

13/265: Bauhinia (250). Pantropical (temperate) (map: from Meusel et al. 1965; Sales & Hedge 1996; Trop. Afr. Fl. Pl. Ecol. Distr. 3. 2008). [Photo - Bauhinia, Cercis, © D. Kimbler.]

Synonymy: Bauhiniaceae Martynov

1b. Duparquetia

Leaves once-compound; K 4, petal-like, adaxial-median C external; A 4, opposite K, connate, anthers porose; pollen asymmetric, ectoaperture encircling the equator, with two endoapertures; G initiation not advanced relative to that of other organs [development "normal"].

1/1: Duparquetia orchidacea. Tropical W. Africa.

1c. Detarieae de Candolle

Plant ectomycorrhizal; (resins +, with bicyclic diterpenes); leaf phloem transfer cells +; leaflets with crater-like glands on the abaxial surface, stipules caducous, intrapetiolar; (bracteoles well developed, caducous); (K 0); A from ring meristem); (pollen striate); style bent abaxially; (seed arillate); endosperm 0, cotyledons with thick-walled cells [amyloid, xyloglucans]; x = 12.

82-84/750: Cynometra (85), Macrolobium (75), Crudia (550, Copaifera (35). Tropical.

Synonymy: Detariaceae J. Hess

1d. Dialieae Nakai

Inflorescences cymose; (K 3-4)5, (C 0-4); A 2-5(-10); (G 2).

14/56: Dialium (28). Tropical.

["Caesalpinioideae" + Mimosoideae + Faboideae]: (non-protein amino acids, esp. in seeds, +); vestured pits + (0); Leaves equal- or odd-pinnately compound (palmate, simple); (fruit a drupe, samara, schizocarp, etc.); seed arillate.

2. "Caesalpinioideae" de Candolle

Shrubs or trees (herbs); (N-fixing +, rhizobia remain in infection threads - Chamaecrista); non-protein amino acids +; sieve tube plastids also with fibres; leaves bicompound or not; (G adnate to side of hypanthium); ovules usu. campylotropous [up a level?], outer integument with vascular strand; (aril 0), funicle long and thin to stout and thick, (pleurogram +), (linea fissura 0, several); (cotyledons with thick-walled cells [amyloid, xyloglucans]).

160[list]/1930: Senna (295-350), Chamaecrista (265). Tachigali (60). Predominantly tropical, esp. Africa and America. [Photos - Collection]

Synonymy: Caesalpiniaceae R. Brown, Cassiaceae Vest, Ceratoniaceae Link[?]

3. Mimosoideae de Candolle

Shrubs or trees (herbs); N-fixing common; albizziine [non-protein amino acid] +; sieve tube plastids also with fibres; (septate fibres +; aliform axial parenchyma); rays usu. 20< cells high; leaves often bicompound, petiolar extrafloral nectaries common; inflorescences ± capitate, flowers opening together, organ initiation in all flowers of the one head beginning simultaneously; flowers rather small, polysymmetric, bracteoles 0, hypanthium often 0; K connate, median sepal adaxial, valvate (imbricate; much reduced), C enclosing the flower in bud, connate (free), valvate, not clawed; A often connate, (many, from ring primordium); pollen polyads common; (G 1< - e.g. Inga; if 5, opposite K - Archidendron lucyi), stigma (dry - one record), cup-shaped, (peltate); (ovule with naked micropyle); seed (arillate), funicle long, thin; testa with vascular strand, pleurogram + [?here]> (0), linea fissura U-shaped [open], (0); suspensor vestigial at cotyledon stage, detached from wall of embryo sac.

82[list]/3275: Acacia s. str. (960), Mimosa (480), Inga (350), Calliandra (200), Vachellia (161), Senegalia (85), Prosopis (45), Pithecellobium (40). Esp. tropical and warm temperate, esp. Africa and America (map: from Vester 1940; Maslin et al. 2003; Trop. Afr. Fl. Pl. Ecol. Distr. 3. 2008a). [Photos - Collection.]

Synonymy: Acaciaceae E. Meyer, Mimosaceae R. Brown

4. Faboideae Rudd / Papilionoideae Jussieu, nom. alt.

Isoflavonoids [pterocarpans and isoflavans], prenylated flavonoids, indolizidine, and quinolizidine alkaloids +; (cork cambium deep seated); leaves once compound; (pollen porate); seed pleurogram 0, linea fissura 0.

4a. Swartzieae

Trees, shrubs; plant N-fixing; stipels + (0); hypanthium 0; K completely connate, opening irregularly, C 1 (0, 2); A many, from ring meristem, dimorphic; nectary 0; (G 2-4), long-stipitate; ovules anatropous; seed usu. arillate; coat thin, cracking; embryo straight; n = 14.

1/140. Central and South America (Map: from Cowan 1967).

Synonymy: Swartziaceae Bartling

4b. The Rest.

Herbs, vines (lianes, trees, shrubs); (N-fixing 0); (ectomycorrhizae +); (pyrrolizidine alkaloids + - Genisteae); sieve tubes with spindle-shaped non-dispersive protein bodies [forisomes]; (nodes 1:1); (styloids +); (leaves 2+ compound); palmate), (pulvini 0); hypanthium usu. 0; K, C, A with unidirectional [abaxial to adaxial] initiation; K connate, adaxial-median C external [= ascending cochleate], 2 abaxial C connate; A connate [e.g. 9 + 1], (not); (pollen porate); ovules usu. campylotropous, (endothelium; integumentary endothelium), antiraphe bundle (+ Canavalia, Sophora), funicle short; seed asymmetric, not arillate; testa (multiplicative), hour-glass cells + [below palisade exotesta], raphe shorter than the antiraphe, hilum with a hilar groove, with tracheid bar [group of tracheids just below surface of hilum] and recurrent vascular bundles, counter palisade +; cotyledons accumbent, not investing radicle, cotyledon areole +, (xyloglucans +, starch in embryo), (endosperm 0), embryo curved, radicle long; (chloroplast rps16 gene absent; ORF184 absent), duplication of CYC gene.

475[list]/13715 (abbreviations - BAPH = baphioids, DAL = dalbergioids s.l., GEN = genistoids, IRLC = Inverted Repeat Loss Clade, MILL = Indigofereae + millettioids, MIRB = mirbelioids, ROB = robinioids): Astragalus (2400-3270: IRLC), Indigofera (700: aff. MILL, mesifixed hairs), Crotalaria (700: GEN), Mirbelia s.l. (450: MIRB), Tephrosia (350: MILL), Desmodium (300: MILL), Aspalathus (300: GEN), Oxytropis (300: IRLC), Lupinus (270: IRLC), Adesmia (240-425: DAL), Trifolium (240: IRLC), Rhynchosia (230: MILL), Aeschynomene (160: DALB), Hedysarum (160: IRLC), Lathyrus (160: IRLC), Vicia (160: IRLC), Dalea (150: DALB), Eriosema (150: MILL), Millettia (150: MILL), Daviesia (135: MIRB), Machaerium (130: DALB), Onobrychis (130: IRLC), Ormosia (130: unplaced), Lotus (inc. Coronilla: 125: ROB), Erythrina (110: MILL), Gastrolobium s.l. (110: MIRB), Mucuna (105: MILL), Lonchocarpus (100: MILL), Lotononis (100: GEN), Pultenaea (100: MIRB), Vigna (90+: MILL), Genista (90: GEN), Medicago (87: IRLC), Swainsonia (85: IRLC), Caragana (75: IRLC), Jacksonia (75: MIRB), Ononis (75: IRLC), Phaseolus (75: MILL), Zornia (75: DALB), Argyrolobium (70: GEN), Arachis (70-80: DAL), Cytisus (65: GEN), Bossiaea (60: MIRB), Canavalia (60: MILL), Clitoria (60: MILL), Dolichos (60: MILL), Galactia (60: MILL), Lebordea (60: GEN) Sesbania (60: ROB), Brogniartia (55: GEN), Derris (55: MILL), Lessertia (50: IRLC), Psoralea (50: MILL), Sophora (50: GEN), Caragana (50: IRLC). Esp. (warm) temperate, but world-wide (map: from Vester 1940; Meusel et al. 1965; Hultén 1971; Trop. Afr. Fl. Pl. Ecol. Distr. 3. 2008a, 4. 2008b). [Photo - Flower, Fruit, Collection.]

Synonymy: Aspalathaceae Martynov, Astragalaceae Berchtold & J. Presl, Ciceraceae W. Steele, Coronillaceae Martynov, Cytisaceae Berchtold & J. Presl, Dalbergiaceae Martinov, Daleaceae Berchtold & J. Presl, Galedupaceae Martynov, Geoffroeaceae Martius, Hedysaraceae Oken, Inocarpaceae Berchtold & J. Presl, Lathyraceae Burnett, Lotaceae Oken, Papilionaceae Giseke, Phaseolaceae Martius, Robiniaceae Vest, Sophoraceae Berchtold & J. Presl, Tamarindaceae Martinov, Trifoliaceae Berchtold & J. Presl, Viciaceae Oken

• Fabaceae may be recognised by their compound, stipulate leaves whose leaflets are entire and often have wrinkled pulvini, and flowers with a single carpel, free petals (or two may be connate), and stamens either all similar in length, or if dissimilar, not regularly alternating longer and shorter. The fruit is usually dry and elongated, the often flattened seeds being borne in a single rank.

• "Caesalpinioideae" and Cercis and its relatives are woody plants that may be recognised by their usually once-compound leaves and monosymmetric flowers with the odd petal adaxial and inside the others in bud; the hypanthium is often well-developed.

  Floral formula: ↑ ⚥ K 5; C 5; A 10; N; G 1.

• Mimosoideae are also mostly woody plants that have leaves that are often bicompound and have extrafloral nectaries on the petioles. The flowers are rather small and are often borne in heads, all flowers opening more or less simultaneously; the long, coloured filaments form the visually attractive part of the inflorescence. Both the calyx and corolla are valvate, and both (and often the bases of the filaments) are connate. The seeds have a fine, U-shaped line on both sides.

  Floral formula: * ⚥ K [5]; C [5]; A 10-many/[10-many]; N; G 1.

• Faboideae are usually herbs or vines and often have once-compound leaves. The flowers are monosymmetric with the odd petal being adaxial and outside the others; the papilionoid flower consists of adaxial banner, paired wings and two connate petals forming the keel. The stamens have more or less connate filaments and the fruit is often explosively dehiscent, simultaneously splitting down both sides and the two valves twisting.

  Floral formula: ↑ ⚥ K 5; C 5; A 10/[9] + 1/[10]; N; G 1.

Evolution. Divergence & Distribution. Fabaceae are a notably speciose clade, particularly the branches with Mimosoideae and Faboideae (Magallón & Sanderson 2001), and contain ca 9.4% of eudicots. Perhaps 16% of all woody species in neotropical rainforest are members of Fabaceae (Burnham & Johnson 2004), indeed, they are the most speciose family in lowland tropical rainforest and also drier forest types in both America and Africa (Gentry 1988). Shoemaker et al. (2006) and Soltis et al. (2009) think, although with some hesitation, that diversification in Faboideae may be connected to a genome duplication immediately basal to the split between mirbelioids and the rest; this is the clade that is notable for the occurrence of the non-protein amino acid canavanine. See also rate shifts in Smith et al. (2011) and discussion below under Ecology & Physiology.

Wikström et al. (2001: Quillaja not included, see also 2004) date stem Fabaceae to 79-74 m.y., the crown group to 68-56 m.y.a.; the [Mimosoideae et al. + Faboideae] split is dated to 61.3-49.9 m.y. Bruneau et al. (2008a, q.v. for more dates, b; perhaps slightly younger estimates in Bello et al. 2009) thought that Fabaceae began diversifying in the Palaeocene ca 60-64 m.y.a. (the stem group is little older), and the major clades had separated by 58-55 m.y.a.; the crown ages of the major clades are 56-34 m.y. A Gondwanan age of Amherstieae (= Detarieae) suggested because of their amphiatlantic distribution and common possession of ectomycorrhizae (Henkel et al. 2002) seems unlikely. The crown clade [part of "Caesalpinioideae" + Mimosoideae] may date to 54 ± 3.4 m.y., [Faboideae + [part of "Caesalpinioideae" + Mimosoideae]] to ca 55 m.y., crown group Mimosoideae to 44 ± 2.6 m.y. (Lavin et al. 2005; not very dissimilar ages in Bouchenak-Khelladi et al. 2010b, although they depend on what is included in the subfamily). Stem group Faboideae may date to 58.6 ± 0.2 m.y., the crown group being about the same age (Lavin et al. 2005); the latter date is rather sensitive to the age of Fabaceae as a whole.

Diversification and distribution of Fabaceae in best thought of in terms of vicariance of biomes rather than of classic geographical areas (Lavin et al. 2004; Schrire et al. 2005). There are a number of transoceanic disjunctions within the family, but 51/59 of these are only 1-22 m.y. old (Schrire et al. 2005; Bouchenak-Khelladi et al. 2010b); the North Atlantic land bridge may have been important in the Tertiary dispersal of the family (Lavin et al. 2000).

Diversification in Cercis seems to have begun ca 35 m.y.a., and spread was from east to west - and across the Atlantic (Fritsch & Cruz 2012). Marazzi and Sanderson (2010) suggest an age of 53-47.5 m.y. for stem group Senna, (47-)45(-41.7) m.y. for the speciose crown group. Early divergence within Mimosoideae seems to have occurred in Africa (Bouchenak-Khelladi et al. 2010b). Inga, with some 350 species, seems to have diversified in the lowland tropical forests that it prefers only within the last 2 m.y. (Richardson et al. 2001b; Pennington et al. 2009; Dexter et al. 2010: thoughts on species limits); extinction might also cause this pattern (Crisp & Cook 2009).

Within Faboideae, there has been much diversification of Indigofereae in succulent biomes, clades growing there tending to be geographically more restricted than those common in grassland biomes; ages of crown groups of the four clades into which species of Indigofera fall is ca 15.5 m.y. or less (Schrire et al. 2009). Robinieae may have been diversifying for some 30 m.y. in the neotropical seasonally dry tropical forest (Pennington et al. 2009). Apparent independent increases in the rate of diversification in clades in the [Mirbelieae + Bossieae] and Podalyrieae may rather be the results of extinctions caused by cooling climates and increased seasonality ca 32-30 m.y.a. in the early Oligocene (Crisp & Cook 2009), and Crisp and Cook (2007) date the development of SW/SE Australian disjunctions to vicariant events caused by the development of aridity in the Nullarbor plane some 14-13 m.y.a. (other climatic events could also be implicated). On the other hand, for Schnitzler et al. (2011) diversification of the ca 128 species of Podalyrieae in the Cape Flora began ca 33 m.y.a. at the end of the Eocene and was connected with shifts in how the plants survived fires.

The IRLC clade includes ca 4,500 species or more. The speciose Astragalus, with around 3,000 species, characterises drier areas of both hemispheres, and a number of taxa have leaf rhachis spines; it separated from Oxytropis (the latter has a beak on its keel) 16-12 m.y.a., and diversification in both is still more recent. In particular, radiation in the speciose aneuploid New World neoastragalus clade (ca 500 species) started ca 4.4 m.y.a. (Wojciechowski 2004), with two invasions of west South America - there are over 100 species there - timed at a mere 2.07-1.62 and 1.23-0.79 m.y.a. respectively (Scherson et al. 2008).

Several major clades that are correlated with geography have been detected in Lupinus (Aïnouche & Bayer 1999, support not very strong; Aïnouche et al. 2004). Within one of these clades there has been a recent (ca 2.7 m.y.) Central American/Andean radiation that is now represented by over eighty species, some 56 of which grow in the páramo, the rate of diversification increasing as the genus moved into Andean South America from Central America (Moore & Donoghue 2009; see also Silvestro et al. 2011; Sklenár et al. 2011). Species of Lupinus there, and in montane North America, where there had been an earlier burst of diversification, are largely perennials (Drummond 2008; Drummond et al. 2012), the annual habit being plesiomorphous, and they show much variation in habit, etc. Perennials also diversified in eastern South America ca 6.5 m.y.a.; they are separately related to east North American annuals (Drummond et al. 2012). This South American speciation may also be connected with the migration of bumble bees there, also from North America, some six m.y.a. (Hughes & Eastwood 2006). All told, there are ca 171 species of Lupinus in South America versus ca 90 species in the whole northern hemisphere (von Hagen & Kadereit 2003). Ree et al. (2003) studied aspects of LEGCYC gene evolution in the context of variation of floral morphology in the genus.

Bello et al. (2012) suggest a couple of apomorphies for the family and of clades within it.

Ecology & Physiology. Fabaceae grow in closed lowland tropical rainforst, but they are often members of more open vegetation, even of early successional communities, in both tropical and temperate regions of the world. They also make up perhaps the second most important family of lianes, both ecologically and in terms of number of species, in the New World (Gentry 1991).

Associations with nitrogen-fixing bacteria are very common (see below), and substantial amounts of nitrogen can be fixed [refs.]. However, the role of legumes in the nitrogen cycle of tropical forests is unclear. Some work suggests that N-fixation is facultative, and in old, relatively nutrient-rich forests, nitrogen fixation by legumes (in the example, species of Inga) decreases when compared with species growing in seasonally flooded forests and in light gaps (Barron et al. 2011); other species of Fabaceae also have low fixation rates in mature forests (Barron et al. 2011 and literature). N-fixing tropical forest legumes may have a competitive advantage over non-nodulators as atmospheric CO₂ concentration increases (Cernusak et al. 2011).

Some Fabaceae - most records are from Old World Detarieae - are ectomycorrhizal (ECM) (e.g. Onguene & Kuyper 2001); estimates of the number of species involved range from 250 (Brundrett 2009) to 450 (B. Mackinder pers. comm. viii.2012). Some 36 of the ca 82 genera included in Detarieae are reported as being at least locally dominant (e.g. Letouzey 1968; Mackinder 2005), 11 being in the rather small Macrolobieae/the Berlinia clade of only 16 genera, and of which 10 are also known to be ECM (see also Wieringa & Gervais 2003). Some Detarieae are endomycorrhizal (see Cynometra below).

All told, Detarieae occupy ca 3.316-2.8 m km² in the Zambezian region alone (estimated from White 1983). In Miombo forests they represent 20-90% of the trees, 30-96% of the basal area, and with biomass estimates in the range of 35-97 Mg ha-1 (Frost 1996). Detarieae like Isoberlinia and Brachystegia are very important components of the widespread deciduous Miombo forests which grow on often rather poor soils over some 2.7 million km² of central Africa, and these forests are the centre of diversity of Brachystegia (e.g. White 1983; Högberg 1990; S. E. Smith & Read 2008 for references). Many other species, both of trees and herbs, also grow in these communities, interestingly, the trees include other ECM taxa like Monotes (Dipterocarpaceae) and Uapaca (Phyllanthaceae) (White 1983). Colophospermum mopane, an important food for elephants, dominates ca 50,000 km² of mopane woodland (e.g. Torti et al. 2001; Mackinder 2005; Newbery et al. 2006), these, along with Miombo forests, form a major part of the Zambezian Region. Isoberlinia is a major component of Sudanian Woodland (White 1983) which forms an interrupted band south of the Sahara from Mali to Uganda (White 1983; map: very approximate, from White 1983). This forest is biogeographically closest to Miombo woodlands among other African vegetation types (Linder et al. 2012).

Even tropical lowland rainforest in Africa can have a substantial component of ECM Fabaceae. Thus Gilbertiodendron dominates considerable areas of the Congo Ituri rainforest, Microberlinia dominates Guineo-Congolian forests in Cameroon, and other Detarieae dominate parts of the coastal forest from Sierra Leone to western Gabon, and again in the periphery of the Zaire basin (White 1983). Indeed, a caesalpinioid Biafran forest subtype has been recognised, and here, of 34 genera recorded, 28 are members of Detarieae, and 11 of these are described as being characteristically gregarious (Letouzey 1968). Newbery (1997) noted that Detarieae in Cameroon t.l.r.f. grew on poor soils and seemed to be able to control the flow of phosphorous through the ecosystem to their own benefit, however, fertilization with phosphorous had little effect on their growth (Newbery et al. 2002); Van der Burgt & Eyakwe (2008) give information about a ca 35 km² caesalpinioid-dominated area in the Korup Forest. Gilbertiodendron dewevrei, whose foliage, seeds, and perhaps even mycorrhizae are major food sources for elephants, etc. (Blake & Fay 1997), dominates ca 10,000 ha in the eastern Congo. There it has above-ground biomass of 394-411.1 Mg ha^-1, about 74% of the total (Makana et al. 2011); it may occupy 88% of the total basal area in the forests it dominates (Hart et al. 1989). Bâ et al. (2011a) summarized information on dominance of Detarieae.

In the New World, the ECM Aldina (Faboideae) and Dicymbe (Detarieae) dominate forests in the Pakaraima Mountains in the central Guiana Shield region (McGuire 2007b; M. E. Smith et al. 2011), the latter in particular supporting a rich community of fungi (Henkel et al. 2012). Peltogyne (Detarieae) is one of the rare monodominants of the Amazon, where it occupies ca 53% of the basal area of trees 10 cm or more in d.b.h. on Maraca Island, Roraima, a figure that increases in proportion in larger trees (Nascimento et al. 1997). Interestingly, Gentry (1993) compared the ecological role of dipterocarps in the Old World with that of caesalpinioid legumes in the New World, particularly on poor soils and under seasonal climates.

ECM Detarieae often have attributes common in other ECM trees such as large seeds, mast fruiting, an association with poor soils, and dominance (Malloch et al. 1980; also Newbery et al. 1997, 2006; Wieringa 1999). However, other ecologically similar legumes like Mora, a not immediately related caesalpinioid which dominates ca 37,000 hectares in Trinidad (Beard 1946; Hart et al. 1989), and the Old World Cynometra (Detarieae) appear to be endomycorrhizal (e.g. Connell & Lowman 1989). Cynometra alexandri dominates ca 11,000 ha in Uganda (Eggeling 1947) and comes close to dominating (ca 31.5% of above-ground biomass) some forests in the eastern Congo, indeed, four caesalpinioids there make up over 50% of the biomass (Makan et al. 2011). Cynometra forests do not accumulate large amounts of litter, but that is also true of the ECM Julbernardia (Torti et al. 2001). All told, the legumes of such forests are characterized by a syndrome of features that includes poor soils, large seeds, poor dispersal, litter accumulation, shade tolerance, etc. (e.g. Hart 1990; Torti et al. 2001; Alexander 2006; Bâ et al. 2011b).

Other Fabaceae are conspicuous elements of various vegetation types world-wide (Lewis et al. 2005; Schrire et al. 2005). Thus Faboideae-Robinieae are an important component of the neotropical seasonally dry tropical forest (Pennington et al. 2009), while Inga (Mimosoideae), with some 350 species, is very conspicuous in neotropical lowland forests (Richardson et al. 2001b; Pennington et al. 2009). There has been much diversification within a number of geographically-restricted clades of Indigofereae that grow in succulent biomes (Schrire et al. 2009).

Cluster roots have been reported in some Faboideae, including Lupinus, although they do not occur in all members of that genus; the overall appearance of such roots is rather regular and dauciform, but this carrot-like shape is made by the dense, spreading lateral roots, not by root hairs (Shane & Lambers 2005). Species of Lupinus with such roots (especially common in Old World), and some with ordinary roots (from the New World) release massive amounts of carboxylates (organic anions) such as citrate, sometimes in amounts up to 23% of dry mass, and these can replace organic or inorganic phosophorus on soil particles under alkaline conditions and so mobilize it (Lambers et al. 2013 and references). Given its ability to fix nitrogen, Lupinus can be an aggressive pioneer on volcanic and other skeletal and nutrient-poor soils (Lambers et al. 2013).

Knoblauch et al. (2001) discuss the possible mode of action of the distinctive spindle-shaped non-dispersive protein bodies (= forisomes) that are common in the sieve tubes of Faboideae (e.g. Behnke 1981b; Behnke & Pop 1981; Peters et al. 2010), in blocking the pores of the sieve plates when turgor pressure changes. The protein bodies change shape and volume very quickly depending on the concentration of Ca²⁺ ions; ATP is not needed for this shape change (Peters et al. 2007, 2008, 2010). Within Faboideae, forisomes are absent from a number of Galegeae, many members of which - including those species of Astragalus studied - also lack calcium oxalate crystals (Peters et al. 2010).

Plant-Animal Interactions. Herbivory by foliovorous insects is often quite marked. Cassia fistulosa is sometimes almost defoliated by caterpillars of pierid butterflies, while up to one third or more of the developing foliage of species of Inga may be eaten by herbivores (Kursar et al. 2009). Associations of insects and Fabaceae are often quite close. Caterpillars of Lycaenidae-Riodininae-Riodinini, Lycaenidae-Curetinae and especially Lycaeninae-Lycaenini butterflies are often found on Fabaceae (Ehrlich & Raven 1964; Fiedler 1991, 1995), as are larvae of the some 260 species in 15+ genera of Coliadinae and Dismorphiinae (Pieridae) butterflies (Braby & Trueman 2006: a quarter of the records, see also Brassicales and Santalales), indeed, species of Fabaceae may be the original food plants of Pieridae (Braby & Trueman 2006; Wheat et al. 2007; Fordyce 2010). The diversity of caterpillars, especially that of "basal" butterfly groups, including Baronia, sister to all Papilionidae (Heikkilä et al. 2011), on Fabaceae is such that Janz and Nylin (1998) and Braby and Trueman (2006) suggested that Fabaceae might be the springboard for host-plant diversification of butterflies feeding on angiosperms in general (see also the introduction to Fabales), although that then would mean that diversification of these butterflies would be Tertiary, given suggestions as to the age of Fabaceae (see also above).

In another variant of insect-plant relationships, the flowers of Crotalaria are visted by Danainae and Ctenuchidae because the pyrrolizidine alkaloids they contain are used as the basis of the pheromones of these lepidoptera (also Asteraceae, and wilting plants of some Boraginaceae: Edgar et al. 1974; Pliske 1975; Boppreé 1986). Crotalaria is also involved with arctiid moths such as Utetheisa, its secondary metabolites providing defence for the young, etc. (Eisner & Meinwald 1995).

Some 70% of the 1,700 seed beetles, bruchids (Chrysomelidae-Bruchinae), are associated with Fabaceae, the legume-feeding seed beetles perhaps diverging between 57.9-51 m.y.a., quite soon after the origin of Fabaceae themselves (Kergoat et al. 2011). Stem Bruchinae may be 85-82.6 m.y. old (age spread far greater) - older than legumes - and have eaten the seeds of Arecaceae (Kergoat et al. 2011); a bruchid belong to the palm-eating Pachymerini was found in Canadian amber ca 79 m.y. old (Poinar 2005). Perhaps first associated with Faboideae, bruchids moved on to other groups following the chemistry of the plants (esp. Kergoat et al. 2005a, b; also Johnson 1989, 1990: Acanthoscelides; Birch et al. 1989: chemistry of the interaction; Janzen 1969: the complexity of the association; Kato et al. 2010: importance of female oviposition preferences). The larvae are specialized seed-eaters, and particular groups of bruchids may be associated with particular groups of Fabaceae (e.g. Kergoat et al. 2011 and references). Two clades, made up largely of New World Acanthoscelides and predominantly Old World Bruchidius, dominate, and their radiation may have been contemporaneous with that of their hosts, largely Mimosoideae and Faboideae (also some Malvaceae, in particular); they can detoxify the non-protein amino acid, L-canavanine. For estimates of when particular groups of bruchids diversified on particular clades of Faboideae, see Kergoat et al. (2011). The pattern of association of bruchid groups with mimosoids is interesting; individual bruchid genera tend to be found on adajcent pectinations of the mimosoid phylogenetic tree (Kergoat et al. 2007).

Pinzón-Navarro et al. (2010) discuss the weevils found on Inga; up to 43 species of this speciose genus may coexist at a single site, and this may in part be possible because species differ considerably in antiherbivore defences, the defences varying independently between the species (Kursar et al. 2009).

Rather generalized legume/ant associations are very common in Fabaceae and are mediated by extrafloral nectaries. The nectar secreted, which usually contains sucrose, attracts ants that can protect the plant against herbivorous insects. Such nectaries have possibly evolved some 35 times in the family, and have also subsequently been lost and even regained (e.g. Marazzi et al. 2011; see also McKey 1989). They are notably common in Mimosoideae and are found towards the base of the petiole and sometimes on petiolules; they are less common in caesalpinioids, although they may be represented by tufts of hairs (Pascal et al. 2000), and they are still less common in Faboideae.

The presence of such extrafloral nectaries characterises a major clade within Senna. There they may be a "key innovation" that is involved in the diversification of that clade, which is both much more speciose than its sister clade (68 species, no nectaries, versus 282 species with nectaries) and has speciated significantly faster. The extrafloral nectary-bearing clade may have exploited the new habitats that became available in South America after the Andean uplift (Marazzi et al. 2006; Marazzi & Sanderson 2008, esp. 2010). Marazzi and Sanderson (2010) suggest a crown-group age for this clade of some 40.8-30.6 m.y., that is, somewhat before the Andean uplift (ca 30 m.y.a.). But Marazzi and Sanderson (2010) also noted that Simon (2008) had found that the loss of extra-floral nectaries characterized a large clade of Mimosa that was far more speciose than its sister clade; the ratio of species in the sister taxa with and without extrafloral nectaries there is 15:515 (Simon et al. 2011).

Much more intimate ant-legume associations also occur. The close association of Pseudomyrmex ants with some members of the old Acacia subgenus Acacia (= Vachellia), including the swollen-thorn acacias such as V. sphaerocephala, are well known. The plant provides protein-rich Beltian bodies at the ends of each leaflet (the leaves have many leaflets, even for Acacia s.l.) as food for the ants, and swollen stipular thorns serve as their homes (Janzen 1967b, 1974b; Webber & McKey 2009). The ants also take nectar from extrafloral nectaries; interestingly, unlike the nectar normally produced by these glands, the nectar is sucrose-free, the ants lacking the invertase needed to break down sucrose (Kautz et al. 2009). Perversely, species of Acacia with low nectar rewards are derived from those with higher rewards; species that offer only low rewards are often colonized by exploiter ants that do not defend the plant (Heil et al. 2009). There are other examples of close ant-plant relationships in Fabaceae (McKey 1989 for a list). In the common African Leonardoxa africana (Detarieae) a third party, an ascomycete, is central to the relationship (Defossez et al. 2011), with nitrogen from the ants initially moving more into the fungus than the plant. Ffor plant-ant signalling in this association, see Vittecoq et al. (2011); Brouat et al. (2001) presented evidence suggesting that the size and shape of the prostoma, through which the ant entered the plant, could in some cases be linked with comparable attributes of the head of the ant involved in the association.

The toxic indolizidine alkaloid, swainsonine, is found in Astragalus (species with it are called "locoweeds"), Oxytropis and Swainsona itself, and it causes a serious, sometimes fatal, disease in cattle (for its synthesis by associated fungi, see Pryor et al. 2009; Ralphs et al. 2008). The non-protein amino acids found in many Fabaceae (see below) may also be toxic, while the Australian Gastrolobium (Mirbelieae) produces the toxic sodium monofluoroacetate (Chandler et al. 2001).

Indeed, the diversity of secondary metabolites in Fabaceae, perhaps especially in Faboideae, is remarkable. For instance, about 28% of all known flavonoids and about 95% of the isoflavonoid aglycone structures - over 1,000 alone - have been found there, and the isoflavonoids are restricted to Faboideae. Isoflavonoids are both phytoalexins involved in plant defence and may also play a role in nodulation (Hegnauer & Grayer-Barkmeijer 1993; Reynaud et al. 2004). Flavonoids lacking the 5-hydroxy group are characteristic of Fabaceae (Seigler 2003), but I do not know at what level they are apomorphic. In general Fabaceae have a very distinctive nitrogen metabolism. Non-protein amino acids are common (see e.g. Fowden et al. 1979), and nitrogen in the xylem sap is transported as a mixture of amino acids, amides, and sometimes also ureides; very little is transported as nitrate. Wojciechowski et al. (2003, 2004, see also Wojciechowski 2003) note that the distribution of some non-protein amino acids are systematically interesting. Thus canavanine production seems to have originated in the ancestor of a major group of Faboideae that includes mirbelioids, millettioids, robinioids, and the IRLC, and has been dated to 54.3 ± 0.6 m.y.a. (Lavin et al. 2005 - see tree above). L-canavanine, which can be taken up in place of the normal amino acid L-arginine, may have potent effects on herbivores (e.g. Rosenthal 1990, 2001 and references; Huang et al. 2011: non-protein amino acids in general). L-canaline is rather like the amino acid ornithine; both L-canaline and L-canavanine serve as nitrogen reserves for the plant. Pea albumin, a small sulphur-rich peptide with insecticidal properties, is known only from Faboideae where it may be a synapomorphy for the [hologalegina + millettioid] clade, being lost in some/all robinioids (Louis et al. 2007). Interestingly, canavanine and alkaloid production are mutually exclusive in legumes, while within the genistoids quinolizidine and pyrrolizidine alkaloids are similarly mutually exclusive (Wink 2008).

There are also more conventional chemical deterrents in Fabaceae, and a number of species have cyanogenic glucosides. Here plant-insect interactions have been studied in detail, for instance, those between the cyanogenic host (Lotus corniculatus) and caterpillars of the burnett moth Zygaena filipendulae; the latter can also synthesize the cyanogenic compounds itself (Zagrobelny & Møller 2011: references to other systems). Astragalus can accumulate the toxic sulphur-antagonist, selenium (El Mehdawi et al. 2012).

Bacterial/Fungal Associations.

Bacteria and N-Fixation.

Many Fabaceae have a close association with nitrogen-fixing bacteria which grow inside irregular, pinkish-coloured nodules on the roots (Sprent 2009 for a summary), the α-proteobacterium Rhizobium is the best-known genus involved. Nodule formation is initiated by the exudation of flavonoids, isoflavonoids, and other attractants by the host and infection of a root hair by a bacterium. There are other ways in which the plant becomes infected, including through cracks in the epidermis, perhaps the plesiomorphic condition, as in Faboideae-Dalbergieae and -Genisteae (Cannon et al. 2010; Vessey et al. 2004). Nodule formation involves the production of Nod factors by the bacterium, although in a few nodule-forming α-proteobacteria (see below) such as the photosynthetic Bradyrhizobium canonical nodABC genes are absent (Giraud et al. 2007). Nod factors are lipochito-oligosaccharides (LCOs), made up of a chain of 3-5 N-acetyl-D-glucosamine units, variously substituted and with a 16-20 C fatty acid attached. The plesiomorphic infection morphology is that of persistent infection threads and long-lived nodules (see also Parasponia [Cannabaceae]), while more derived is the absence of infection threads, mitosis of infected cells, and a short life span of the nodule (de Faria & Sprent 1995; Corby 1988: survey of nodule morphology; Sprent 2005: nodule distribution, see also J. J. Doyle 1994, 1998; J. J. Doyle et al. 1997; Lavin et al. 2001; Oono et al. 2010).

Persistent infection threads and indeterminate nodules are found in "Caesalpinioideae" and also in some Faboideae like Pisum and Vicia (Naisbitt & Sprent 1992; Rae et al. 1992). Infection threads are invaginations of the wall of the root hair through which bacteria reach the apoplastic area beneath the epidermis, and by the development of further threads they move more deeply into the root. They eventually move into the cell by endocytosis; one or a few bacteria (now known as bacteroids) are enclosed by a plant membrane, the whole forming an organelle-like symbiosome (Rae et al. 1992; Streng et al. 2011, summary). In indeterminate nodules symbiosomes are formed in cells that are no longer meristematic, the meristem continuing to produce a supply of cells that are serially infected by the persistent infection threads. In determinate nodules, such as occur in Phaseolus, symbiosomes form in cells of the nodule meristem, and transmission is by cell division (Rae et al. 1992). Bacteroid differentiation is either reversible, little morphological change having occured, or non-reversible; in the latter case, which is much less common (Oono et al. 2010), bacteroids become swollen, and N-fixing by these swollen bacteroids is more efficient than by non-swollen bacteroids (Oono & Denison 2010).

The nodules are anatomically rather like stems in having peripheral vascular bundles, the bacteria being in the pith (Franche et al. 1998), however, nodule origination occurs where lateral roots develop, at least in Faboideae (op den Camp et al. 2011). In Faboideae, there seems to have been cooption of genes originally involved in lateral root origination after a genome duplication event ca 54 m.y.a. (op den Camp et al. 2011); this happened after the divergence of Faboideae from N-fixing clades such as Chamaecrista, which do not have this duplication (Cannon et al. 2010) and so probably have a different mode of nodule formation. See also Hirsch and LaRue (1997) and Couzigou et al. (2012) for the complex origin of the nodule developmental pathway.

Nodulation is especially widespread in Faboideae and Mimosoideae, but it is less common in "Caesalpinioideae", although occurring in Chamaecrista. Although most Faboideae are nodulators (Sprent 2000, 2001, 2007) and the nodulating Swartzia (derived nodule morphology) and immediate relatives may form a clade sister to the rest of the subfamily (see Ireland et al. 2000; Pennington et al. 2000; Lavin et al. 2005), other Faboideae that are in clades basal to that including the bulk of the subfamily do not nodulate. Symbiont specificity tends to be greatest in the IRLC clade (Faboideae), although genera like Astragalus are exceptions (Howard & Wojciechowski 2006). The effectiveness of nodulation is often reduced in more acid soils, although Lupinus and Mimosa in Brazil, at least, may be exceptions (Lin et al. 2012). Since rhizobia do not form resting spores, how they persist in the soil is unclear - perhaps in biofilms (Hirsch 2010)?

Details of the evolution of nodulation in Fabaceae are still not well understood. The ability to nodulate has probably been acquired several times within the family. Genes involved in the association tend to be clustered in plasmids or on symbiosis islands and move about relatively easily by lateral gene transfer; this enables bacteria to become endosymbionts in a single step (Maclean et al. 2007). Thus there is both vertical transmission of these gene complexes as well as transmission of infection islands from introduced strains of nodulating bacteria to native strains (Aserse et al. 2012). In eastern North America legume hosts select for particular Bradyrhizobium strains, and independent of this particular variants of the infection island are being exchanged between the different bacteria (Parker 2012). Indeed, different Bradyrhizobium strains may be metabolically quite different, conversely, quite different legume bacterial symbionts may share more genes than Rhizobium leguminosarum, for example, shares with the closely related but non-symbiotic Agrobacterium (Maclean et al. 2007). See also Ormeño-Orillo et al. (2013) for lateral transfer of nodulation genes.

Although many nodulating bacteria are members of the proteobacteria α-2 subclass, they do not form a monophyletic group, and several "species" are involved; Agrobacterium (crown gall tumour) and others are also members of this group (J. J. Doyle 1998; Sprent 2001). Bradyrhizobium associated with Fabaceae both in Australia and Ethiopia is very diverse, many species lacking names (Stepkowski et al. 2012; Aserse et al. 2012), and there is substantial temperate/tropical differentiation in the bacteria involved (Stepkowski et al. 2012).

Other N-fixing bacteria associated with Fabaceae include Burkholderia and relatives, ß-proteobacteria not at all close to Rhizobium, and these associations are quite common in the tropics (Sprent 2007). They are effective nitrogen-fixing symbionts and form two groups, one involved in symbioses with New World Mimosa and Mimosoideae, the other (B. tuberum) nodulating African Faboideae-Crotalarieae and -Phaseoleae (Bontemps et al. 2010). Other ß-proteobacteria form nodules, albeit ineffective, with Mimosoideae (Moulin et al. 2001; Sprent 2002; Elliott et al. 2007 and references), and some are pathogenic, but these rarely nodulate.

For a mutation that improves nuclear calcium signalling at an early stage in the development of symbioses, see Venkatheshwaran et al (2012) - IRLC clade only (Lotus, Medicago)?

Fungi.

There are important interactions of fungi with legumes. Thus Mimosoideae (Acacia, Senegalia), Faboideae such as Aldina, perhaps Gleditsia, a group of genera around Mirbelia, and in particular "Caesalpinioideae"-Detarieae, are ECM plants, but only very rarely also endomycorrhizal (e.g. Sprent & James 2007; S. E. Smith & Read 2008; Bâ et al. 2011a, b). This association has evolved several times (M. E. Smith et al. 2011). In three species (two Dicymbe [Detarieae], Aldina) dominating in New World forests over one hundred species of mostly basidiomycete fungi were implicated in this association (M. E. Smith et al. 2011). Although not that many species are known to be ECM, their ecological impact is disproportionately great for their numbers; for further details, see Ecology & Physiology above. ECM Fabaceae fix nitrogen at most rarely, however, endomycorrhizal (ENM) Fabaceae are commonly also associated with N-fixing bacteria (Bâ et al. 2011b). ENM fungi occur in root nodules in several species (but not in Lupinus, see also above), although their importance is unclear (Scheublin & van der Heijden 2006).

In Oxytropis kansuensis the toxic indolizidine alkaloid, swainsonine, is synthesised by the endophyte Undifilum, an imperfect stage of Pleosporaceae, an ascomycete (Pryor et al. 2009; see also Reyna et al. 2012). Swainsonine is also found in Astragalus and Swainsona itself; the related fungus Embellisia is also implicated in this association (Ralphs et al. 2008).

Rusts show interesting patterns of distribution on Fabaceae. Uromyces is found predominantly on herbaceous Faboideae, but also on Bauhinia and one or two other woody taxa, e.g., along with related genera, on Acacia in Australia), while Ravenelia is found on woody members of the family, "Caesalpinioideae" and especially Mimosoideae (Savile 1976, 1979a, b; El-Gazzar 1979). In some species of Ravenelia the teliospores, thick-walled spores in which nuclear fusion and then meiosis occur, are aggregated into groups, and these telial heads may mimic the groups of pollen grains (polyads) that are common in Mimosoideae. Stingless Trigona bees pick up both telial heads and polyads as they forage for pollen, so helping disperse the fungus. Interestingly, Ravenelia is only very rarely found on Acacia; the distributions of rusts, acacias and trigonid bees all break at about Wallace's Line (El-Gazzar 1979).

Vegetative Variation. Although most Fabaceae have once or twice compound leaves, leaflets with entire margins, and pulvini associated with leaves and leaflets, there is extensive variation on this theme. Thus palmate leaves occur in Lupinus, serrate margins in Cicer, Medicago, etc., and unifolioliate leaves are scattered throughout the family. A number of Faboideae (e.g. Vicia, Pisum) are tendrillar vines, the tendrils being modified terminal leaflets; in Lathyrus aphaca the photosynthetic function of the leaf is taken over by the large stipules, the rest of the leaf being a unbranched tendril, while L. nissolia lacks tendrils and has a phyllodinous leaf (see Kenicer et al. 2005 for a phylogeny). In some taxa compound leaves are reduced to a single more or less connate pair of leaflets, as in Bauhinia, named after the botanical brothers Caspar and Jean Bauhin, and Cercis (Owens 2000).

In general, angiosperm leaf development is associated with the activity of the KNOX1 gene, and this is true of plants with compound leaves incuding many Fabaceae. However, in the IRLC clade (Faboideae) the KNOX1 gene is not - or rather differently - expressed in the developing leaves, while FLO/LFY genes, normally floral meristem identity genes, are expressed both in the leaves and in the flowers (Hofer et al. 1997; Wang et al. 2008; Peng et al. 2011; Townsley & Sinha 2012). The leaves of the IRLC clade lack pulvini, which are present in other Fabaceae (Champagne et al. 2007; Rosin & Kraemer 2009).

In Acacia s. str. (the old subgenus Phyllodinae), the leaves of the mature plant are much modified undivided structures flattened at right angles to the plane of flattening of a normal leaf; they are often called phyllodes, implying that they represent a flattened petiole/rhachis. Seedlings and regeneration shoots can also have normal-looking once or twice compound leaves. In the early development of normal leaves of Fabaceae two rows of adaxial meristems go on to develop the leaflets/pinnae, and these become lateral in position by secondary reorientation. In the "phyllodes" of Acacia there is a single, broader adaxial meristem that develops into the entire leaf (Kaplan (1980); there is no reorientation, hence the plane of flattening of the "phyllode". Complicating the issue, in some species of Acacia these leaves are densely set along the stem, but only some are associated with stipules and buds, others lack both.

Some species of Mimosa and other genera have leaves that are sensitive to touch, stimulus transmission occurring as membrane depolarisation is propagated down the petiole and along the stem; folding of the leaf is caused by tugor changes in the cells of the pulvini at the bases of the leaf and leaflets (for the anatomy of the pulvinus, which has an endodermis, see Rodrigues & Machado 2007). Simon et al. (2011) suggest that sensitive leaves have evolved ca six times in Mimosa alone, although a full understanding of the evolution of this feature depends on more extensive studies on this and related phenomena in legume leaves. Thus in Albizzia (Samanea) saman, there are similar movements as the leaflets fold towards the evening when the light is failing, or just when there is heavy cloud cover, this behaviour being responsible (in some tellings of the tale) for the name of this plant, the rain tree. In Desmodium gyrans the single pair of lateral leaflets move intermittently without being touched, the speed of movement increasing with the temperature.

Pollination Biology & Seed Dispersal.

Flowers.

Although one often thinks of the monosymmetric pea or papilionoid flower and its variants as characterising the family - bar the mimosoids - as a whole, this much underestimates the great variation in floral morphology in many "Caesalpinioideae" in particular. As Bruneau et al. (2005, p. 201) noted of caesalpinioid legumes, "zygomorphy is expressed as a multitude of homoplasious morphs". Detarieae in particular show much floral variation, with the complete loss of organs or whorls of organs being associated with major dislocations of developmental patterns (Tucker 2000). Within Faboideae (= Papilionoideae), papilionoid flowers are found only in a subset, albeit a large subset, and are probably derived within the clade. Thus the flowers of Swartzia, perhaps sister to all other Faboideae, are very different from those of all other Fabaceae in their single banner petal, numerous free and dimorphic stamens, and absence of nectar (Tucker 2003b), and there is considerable floral variation - but rarely papilionoid flowers - in other basal Faboideae (e.g. Mansano et al. 2002, 2004). Even if papilionoid flowers are not as widespread as one might think, flowers with banner petals are common in non-mimosoid Fabaceae.

Hardly surprisingly, Fabaceae attract a diversity of pollinators that visit the flowers for various rewards; Lewis et al. (2000) summarize what is known about pollination in Fabaceae, especially in "Caesalpinioideae". Bee pollination is particularly common in the family (Leppik 1966; Arroyo 1981; Lewis et al. 2000). Pollination in "Caesalpinioideae" is predominantly by polylectic bees, while oligolectic bees are commoner pollinators of Mimosoideae and Faboideae. Oligolectic bees are more speciose in (warm) temperate regions, especially Mediterranean climates (Michener 1979; Kuhlmann & Eardley 2012), and that is where the latter two subfamilies are particularly common. North temperate megachilid osmiine bees like Hoplitis species of the Annonosmia-Hoplitis group collect pollen from concealed-pollen flowers of the family and/or members of Boraginaceae; polylecty is derived in this group of bees (Sedivy et al. 2013). The bees may visit these plants with very different floral morphologies because both have pyrrolizidine alkaloids and/or particular nutrients that are essential for the growth of the bee larvae (Sedivy et al. 2013). In the distinctive flowers of Swartzia pollination may be by euglossine bees (?ref.). Although Faboideae are pollinated mostly by bees and in a variety of ways, pollen morphology is relatively uniform (ref.?). Interestingly, within the tropics bees seem to be commonest in the New World (Michener 1979), and woody Fabaceae are especially diverse there.

The monosymmetric papilionoid flower has a more or less erect banner petal, two wing petals, and paired interlocking keel petals enclosing the stamens; bee pollination is the norm here (for pollination in keel flowers in general, see Westerkamp 1996, 1997). The micromorphology of the epidermis differs between different petals of a single flower; the outer surfaces of the wing petals in particular are variously sculpted (Tewari & Nair 1979), with pockets and folds that afford footholds for the pollinator (Le Roux & van Wyk 2012). This has so far been observed only in papilionoid flowers within Faboideae (Stirton 1981; Ojeda et al. 2009). Colour patterning of the corolla is conspicuous, as in Lupinus, Caesalpinia, and Bauhinia, and is always on the adaxial banner petal; these petals may also absorb ultraviolet light. The colour patterning on the standard of Hardenbergia violacea (Faboideae) may even mimic an anther (Lunau 2006). Although the flowers of Cercis are only superficially similar to those of Faboideae (Tucker 2002a), they, too, have keels and are similar functionally, although Cercis lacks the sculpturing on the wing petals that is common in Faboideae. In some Caesalpinia s.l. the abaxial sepal is coloured and more or less functions as a keel.

The nature of the reward for the bee varies, as is how the pollen ins presented to it. When the androecium is monadelphous, i.e. the filaments of all the stamens are connate, there is no nectar and the reward for the pollinator is often pollen. This can be delivered by a pump-type secondary pollen presentation mechanism: The bee lands on the keel, and the style then forces pollen out of the keel in a tooth paste-like strand, as in Lupinus. If the androecium is diadelphous - nine stamens are connate and a single adaxial stamen is free - the reward is often nectar, the nectary lying between the filament tube and gynoecium and being quite variable in morphology; Indigofera even has short, nectar-secreting spurs (see also Vogel 1997; Davis et al. 1988). Other taxa like Cytisus, Desmodieae and Indigofera have explosive pollination. Here the style, held under tension, is released when the pollinator lands, as it were breaking the keel and scattering pollen over the insect (e.g. Polhill 1976); such flowers can be visited only once. Secondary pollen presentation also occurs in Vicieae and a number of other Faboideae. Here the pollinator picks up the pollen from the pollen brush at the end of the style; this has evolved perhaps eight times (e.g. Lavin & Delgado-S. 1990). In the asymmetrical flowers characteristic of Phaseolinae the labellum is twisted, forming a tube rather like an elephant trunk; this is why Vigna caracalla is called the corkscrew vine (c.f. Pedicularis: Orobanchaceae). When the bee lands on the flower, pollen is extruded from the end of the tube (Delgado-Salinas et al. 2011). Endress (2012) suggested that floral asymmetry was a key innovation in Phaseoleae.

Buzz pollination is quite common in Fabaceae. It occurs throughout Cassia, Chamaechrista and Senna ("Caesalpinioideae": Lewis et al. 2000). Here the anthers dehisce by pores, and these have four different modes of development (Tucker 1996b). The flowers of Senna are often enantiostylous and lack bracteoles (enantiostyly is likely to have been acquired once, although also subsequently lost); the anthers are basifixed and porose. There are three (or more) stamen morphs: three abaxial staminodes, four middle medium-sized stamens from which pollen is taken by the bees, and three longer abaxial stamens pollen from which is actually involved in pollination (see Tucker 1996b; Marazzi & Endress 2008; Marazzi et al. 2007). Cassia s. str., with dorsifixed anthers, also has three stamen morphs. The filaments are curved and the anthers have slits or basal pores. Finally, the largely herbaceous Chamaecrista is also enantiostylous; the stamens have two morphs in different whorls, the filaments are short, and the basifixed anthers dehisce by pores and have a velcro-like line of hairs (Tucker 1996b). There is considerable variation in stigma morphology; the stigmas are often porose and have an exudate (Dulberger et al. 1994; Marazzi et al. 2007 and references). Details of pollination are poorly known, but Westerkamp (2004) suggests that in some species of both Senna and Chamaecrista the orientation of the anthers is such that the pollen ejected when the flower is vibrated misses the bee entirely, but it bounces off the petals and then lands on the bee's back - whence it is removed by the stigma; enantiostyly is an integral part of this remarkable pollination mechanism.

Bird pollination is scattered in the family. Erythrina is pollinated by perching (sun) and hovering (humming) birds, depending on where in the world it grows, and both floral morphology and how the flowers and inflorescences are held varies according the requirements of these different visitors (Bruneau 1997).

Mimosoideae have very different flowers from those of other Fabaceae. Numerous small, polysymmetric flowers are grouped into attractive units, all flowers opening at about the same time. The pollen grains are frequently aggregated into polyads which are caught in a cup-shaped stigma that is of the appropriate size for the polyad of that species, and there are also about as many ovules in the ovary as there are pollen grains in the polyad (Banks et al. 2010; Kenrick 2003: implications of this pollination mechanism for the breeding system). Banks et al. (2011) note that all the pollen grains of a polyad form a single harmomegathic unit. In Calliandra s. str. the polyads have an associated sticky mucilage body by which they are attached to the pollinator, but the stigma is much larger and capitate and the polyads adhere to its surface (Prenner & Teppner 2005; Greissl 2006, c.f. in part Teppner 2007). Bats may also be pollinators, as in Parkia (Bumrungsri et al. 2008 and refs.). For more information on locellate anthers (scattered in the clade), polyads, anther dehiscence, etc., in Mimosoideae, see Prenner and Teppner (2005), Teppner (2007) and Teppner and Stabentheiner (2007, 2010) and references.

Fruits.

The legume s. str. is a single carpellate fruit that dehisces explosively, the two valves of the carpel twisting as they separate. Such fruits have two layers of lignified fibres, at least one of which is oblique to the long axis of the fruit (Fahn & Zohary 1955). A legume so defined is common in European-North American Faboideae, but also in Bauhinia, Duparquetia, Detarieae, (where seeds of emergent Tetraberlinia moreliana may be thrown some 60 m - e.g. van der Burgt 1997), etc. The fruits of Cercis are not explosively dehiscent, but are otherwise similar; they are also typologically rather similar to the fruits of Myristica, the nutmeg! Overall there is a great diversity of fruit morphology in the family, including variously winged fruits, fleshy fruits, fruits breaking up into single-seeded units in different ways, and fruits modified for external animal transport with spines and hooks, for example, the velcro-like hooks on Desmodium (hence its common name, beggar's ticks). In Trifolium the calyx and corolla are both involved in fruit dispersal. Arillate seeds are common and are eaten by birds in particular. Seeds of Abrus precatorius, Erythrina and Pithecellobium have red and black color patterns on the coat and mimic the color contrasts of these arillate seeds (Foster & Delay 1998; c.f. transference of function, Corner 1958), but chewing the seeds of Abrus precatorius is not highly recommended... Species like have seeds with fleshy coats. However, in many taxa, especially those with explosively dehiscent fruits, the seed coat is very hard and may need scarification if germination is to occur (for fruits and seeds, see Corner 1951; van der Pijl 1956; Kirkbride et al. 2003; etc.). Close to a thousand Faboideae are myrmecochorous, and myrmecochory is also known from Acacia s. str. (Mimosoideae: Mckey 1989; Lengyel et al. 2009, 2010); independent evolution of this dispersal mode has occurred several times within the family. For other aspects of the ecology of seed coats, see Souza and Marcos-Filho (2001).

Economic Importance. Weeden (2007) discusses the diversity of genetic changes involved in domestication of legumes. For information on the domestication of soybean (Glycine max), common bean Phaseolus vulgaris, pea (Pisum sativum), the azuki bean (Vigna angularis) and relatives, see papers in Ann. Bot. 100(5). 2007, and for these taxa and lentil (Lens culinaris), see Fuller (2007). For the peanut, Arachis hypogea, see Krapovikas and Gregory (1994), for its domestication, see Dillehay et al. (2007) and for its phylogeny, see Friend et al. (2010), and for the domestication of the lima bean, Phaseolus lunatus, see Serrano-Serrano et al. (2010), and for myuchb information on alfafa, Medicago sativa, see Small (2011).

Genes & Genomes. There are major changes in chromosomal organisation in Faboideae in particular that, apart from their intrinsic interest, provide a considerable amount of phylogenetic structure. A whole genome duplication seems to have occured prior to the divergence of Dalbergieae (Bertoli et al. 2009). The chloroplast genome is notably labile, both in terms of sequence (Kua et al. 2012) and structure. Most Faboideae have a 50kb inversion in the trnL intron in the large single-copy region of their chloroplast genome, however, taxa like Swartzieae, Cladrastis, and a few others, lack this inversion (J. J. Doyle et al. 1996, 1997; Pennington et al. 2001; Wojciechowski et al. 2004). The loss of the chloroplast inverted repeat characterises a largely temperate, epulvinate, herbaceous and very speciose group, the IRLC clade (see above: Wojciechowski 2003 and references); the woody Wisteria is also a member of this clade. The IRLC clade is characterized not only by the loss of the inverted repeat, but the leaves lack pulvini and differ in details of development (see above), there are CA primordia in the flower, A initiation is bidirectional, and there is overlap in the timing of C, A, and G initiation (Naghiloo & Dadpour 2010). All members of the IRLC clade lack the clpP intron, while the rps12 intron has been lost from all members of the clade examined except Wisteria, Callerya and Afgekia - but not Glycyrrhiza - c.f. the tree above (Jansen et al. 2008; Wojciechowski et al. 2008; see also Saski et al. 2007;; Cai et al. 2008). Indeed, genome evolution in taxa that lack the inverted repeat has been considerable (Magee et al. 2010). Desmodium and possibly related genera (MILL) have also lost the rps12 intron (it has moved to the nucleus) as well as the srp12 intron (Doyle et al. 1995; Bailey et al. 1997; Jansen et al. 2008). ORF84 has been lost many times, and accD (= ORF512, zpfA) has also been lost (Doyle et al. 1995). Both the rps16 and ycf4 genes are lost in most Faboideae (Doyle et al. 1995; Jansen et al. 2007). Bertoli et al. (2009) link genome regions that are variable with the presence of retrotransposons.

Transmission of plastids may be biparental (Corriveau & Coleman 1988). Cytisus purpureus forms a well-known graft hybrid with Laburnum anagyroides (+ Laburnocytisus adamii; see Herrmann 1951 for another example); the epidermis alone is Cytisus tissue, and any seeds, being derived from cells from deeper layers, will give Laburnum plants. However, the graft hybrid often breaks down, resulting in branches that are pure Laburnum anagyroides or pure Cytisus purpureus.

Chemistry, Morphology, etc. Root nodule morphology may help delimit groups of genera in Faboideae (Wojciechowski 2003). The occurrence of galactomannans, storage polysaccharides, in seeds of Fabaceae and the ratio of galactose to mannose in them may be of phylogenetic interest (Buckeridge et al. 1995, 2000a, b). Characters of caesalpinioid woods include rays that are usually more than 20 cells tall, presence of silica bodies, and axial canals (Evans et al. 2006); I do not know how these fit on to the current tree. Some Mimosoideae and Faboideae have leaves that are rich in silica (Westbrook et al. 2009).

Mirror image flowers are scattered in non-mimosoid Fabaceae (Tucker 1996b). Details of hypanthial evolution within Fabaceae are unclear; it seems to have become much reduced and lost several times. The "normal" (for flowering plants) floral orientation of Mimosoideae with the median sepal adaxial and the median petal abaxial is secondary; in some 4-merous Mimosoideae the median petal is adaxial (Prenner 2011). Although the normal orientation is also found in caesalpinioids like Ceratonia, the inverted orientation occurs in Cercideae (see Tucker 1989; Herendeen et al. 2003; Luckow et al. 2005), Duparquetia, many other caesalpinioids, and Faboideae; the orientation of the single carpel is the same in all.

The numerous papers by Shirley Tucker are an essential starting point for any understanding of floral morphology and development in Fabaceae. The parts of the flowers of most Fabaceae develop in the unusual sequence sepals-carpels-petals-outer stamens-inner stamens, and there are other distinctive features of their development (e.g. Champagne et al. 2007; Feng et al. 2006; Wang et al. 2008). For variation in general patterns of floral development, see Prenner and Klitgaard (2008b); they emphasize the diversity of developmental patterns even within the corolla whorl, and that in Duparquetia and Faboideae the adaxial petal is in the outermost position, yet they have developmentally different pathways. Particularly when there is complete loss of individual floral structures in evolution, floral development can be greatly changed (Tucker 1988, 2000).

For the adaxial sepal member in Mimosoideae, see Ramírez and Tucker (1990); they describe a variety of developmental pathways that result in the connate calyx of that subfamily. For more floral development in Mimosoideae, see Gemmeke (1982); the androecium may be centripetal when borne on five main primordia. The distinctive cochlear-descending calyx aestivation, helically-initiated androecium, etc., of Calliandra s. str., are distinctive within Mimosoideae (Prenner 2004b). For polyads, anther dehiscence, etc., in some Mimosoideae see Teppner (2007) and Teppner and Stabentheiner (2007) and references. Bauhinia has additional staminodial structures at the base of the ovary (Endress 2008c) that may have something to do with colleters.

For floral and inflorescence morphology, especially in Faboideae-Loteae, see Sokoloff et al. (2007a). Pennington et al. (2000) discussed floral evolution in "basal" Papilionoideae, some of which like Swartzia have flowers with very derived morphologies. Androecial initiation in Swartzia can be both centripetal and centrifugal (Tucker 2003b). The pattern of initiation of the sepals and stamens in Faboideae is variable, by no means always being unidirectional (e.g. Prenner 2004a; de Chiara Moço & de Araujo Mariath 2009). The flowers of some Amorpheae have a stemonozone rather than a hypanthium, i.e. the staminal tube is adnate to the petals (McMahon & Hufford 2002). Prenner (2004c) suggested that a slight asymmetry in the early development of the androecium (the adaxial median stamen is initiated slightly off the median axis) occurs in more "basal" Faboideae and also in some "Caesalpinioideae".

Pollen variation in Fabaceae is quite considerable outside Faboideae (Bente Klitgaard, pers. comm.), the pollem of Duparquetia being unique in angiosperms (Banks et al. 2006). Hesse (1986) noted that both Bauhinia and Cercis - and Caesalpinia and Delonix - had pollen-connecting threads made up of something other than sporopollenin. The style is at least sometimes hollow, although the cavity arises in various ways, including by lysigeny (Lersten 2004). The carpels may have five traces and are quite often open during development in "Caesalpinioideae", but not, apparently, in Cercideae, Mimosoideae or Faboideae (Tucker & Kantz 2001). The embryo sac of some Faboideae (?elsewhere) more or less protrudes into the micropyle, as in Archevaletaia (Maheshwari 1950). There is a great deal of variation in the development of the embryo suspensor, even within Faboideae, especially in Vicia (Lersten 1983; also Tucker 1987; Yeung & Meinke 1993; Rodriguez-Pontes 2008; Endo 2012b). Both a true endothelium and an integumentary endothelium may be present in Faboideae (Rodrigues-Pontes 2008 for discussion and references). The two recurrent vascular bundles lateral to the hilum are absent in "basal" Faboideae (Lackey 2009). For the aborting plumule in seedlings of Lotus and Coronilla and their relatives, see Dormer (1945).

For additional general information see Polhill and Raven (1981), Ferguson and Tucker (1994), Crisp and Doyle (1995), Doyle and Luckow (2003), and Lewis et al. (2005: geographic distributions, illustrations, etc. of all genera); for much information about Genisteae, see Polhill (1976). For chemistry, about which a great deal is known, see e.g. Hegnauer (1994, 1996), Southon (1994), and Hegnauer and Hegnauer (2001), also Frohne and Jensen (1992) and Waterman (1994: secondary metabolites), Wink and Waterman (1999: evolution of secondary metabolites), Wink and Mohamed (2003: particularly useful), Dixon and Sumner (2003), and Wink (2003). For polysaccharides and flavonoids in particular, see Hegnauer and Grayer-Barkmeijer (1993) and Harborne and Baxter (1999), for the synthesis of quinolizidine alkaloids (from cadaverine), see Bunsupa et al. (2012), for terpenoids, see Langenheim (1981, 2003), for seed galactomannans, etc., see Buckeridge et al. (2000b) and Meier and Reid (1982: Lupinus has galactans in its cotyledons), for alkaloids, see Aniszewski (2007), and for glucosylceramides, see Minamioka and Imai (2009). For starch, see Czaja (1978) and for epidermal wax crystals, see Ditsch et al. (1995).

For wood anatomy, see Baretta-Kuipers (1981), Gasson et al. (2000 [Faboideae], 2003, 2009 ["Caesalpinioideae"-Caesalpinieae], and references), and Evans et al. (2006: Mimosoideae). Luckow et al. (2005) discuss variation in flower and seed in Mimosoideae; for embryology, etc., see Newman (1934), Dnyansagar (1970) and Guignard (1881). For floral anatomy, see Rao et al. (1958), for general floral and inflorescence morphology, see Endress (1994b) and Naghiloo et al. (2012: variability), carpel development, van Heel (1981, 1983), for floral development, also Tucker (1996a, b, 2001 [Cynometreae], 2002b, c, 2003c [all Detarieae], 2003a), Zimmerman et al. (2013: Dialinieae), van Heel (1993: Archidendron, if five carpels, alternate with corolla), Mansano and Teixeira (2008: Lecointea clade), Pedersoli et al. (2010: Copaifera, Detarieae), Song et al. (2011: Clianthus), and Paulino et al. (2011: Indigofera). For pollen morphology, see Feuer (1987), Banks and Klitgaard (2000: Detarieae), Banks and Lewis (2009), Banks et al. (2003), Kuriakose (2007), for tapetum, see (Wunderlich 1954: c.f. Caesalpinia), for funicle morphology, see Endo (2012a). For cotyledon areole presence, the size of the areole being linked to the amount of endosperm, see Endo and Ohashi (1998) and Lackey (2011), for endosperm, see e.g. Rau (1953). For information about seed coat anatomy, see e.g. Pammel (1899), Corner (1976), Gunn (1981), Kirkbride and Wiersema (1997), Moïse et al. (2005), and Lackey (2009), for the pleurogram, esp. in Chamaecrista, see De-Paula and Oliveira (2008, 2012), for fruit anatomy in Crotalaria and relatives, see Le Roux et al. (2011), and for fruits and seeds in "Caesalpinoideae", see Gunn (1991); many features other than those noted in the characterisation above may be of systematic interest.

Phylogeny. Fabaceae are monophyletic in both molecular and morphological analyses, although support may not be strong (Legume Phylogeny Working Group 2013, q.v. for good summary of relationships in the family). Caesalpinioideae are wildly paraphyletic at the base of Fabaceae, with Mimosoideae . str. and Faboideae being monophyletic. In addition to placing Cercideae as sister to the rest of Fabaceae, Wojciechowski et al. (2004) found that Dialiinae were sister to the remainder. There were then two main clades, the Mimosoideae, to which Ceratonia, Gleditsia, etc., Caesalpinieae, Cassieae, and Cercideae (all "Caesalpinioideae") are more or less successively sister taxa, and Faboideae; Bruneau et al. (2008a, b) found a somewhat similar set of relationships (see tree here). Cercis and Bauhinia may be sister to all other Fabaceae (e.g. J. J. Doyle et al. 2000 and references; Bruneau et al. 2001), although they are placed sister to Detarieae s.l. sometimes with only with moderate support (Wojciechowski et al. 2004; Lavin et al. 2005; Forest et al. 2007b). Detarieae include genera like Cynometra, Tamarindus and Amherstia and have also been placed by themselves as sister to all Fabaceae minus Cercideae. Duparquetia is also in this general area (Forest et al. 2002; Tucker et al. 2002), and was found to be sister to Dialiinae by Herendeen et al. (2003b). Cercideae, Duparquetia, and/or Detarieae s.l. are all candidates for being sister to the rest of the family (Bruneau et al. 2008a, b; Cardoso et al. 2012: Duparquetia not included; Legume Phylogeny Working Group 2013). Morphology and anatomy support this: All three lack the vestured pits that are common in the rest of the family (they are also absent in Cassieae). Duparquetia is highly derived, but although the carpel develops after the stamens are initiated, unlike other Fabaceae (Prenner & Klitgaard 2008a, esp. b), this could be plesiomorphic; the pollen is also distinctive (Banks et al. 2006).

Within Cercideae, Cercis is sister to the rest (Sinou et al. 2009). Generic limits of Bauhinia are discussed by Sinou et al. (2008, 2009); at least Bauhinia s. str. lacks the srp12 intron (Doyle et al. 1995; Lai et al. 1997) and also the rpl2 intron (Sinou et al. 2009).

Detarieae s.l. (Bruneau 2000; Mackinder 2005: genera; Léonard 1957: seedlings of African taxa, a classic study) show extensive loss of sepals and/or petals and/or stamens, and linked with the first two changes in particular, increase in size of the bracteoles and in number of the stamens (Tucker 1992b, 2000, etc.). Thus in Monopetalanthus durandii the flower is surrounded by bracteoles and the floral formula is K 1 (minute), C 1; A 10; G 1, and Brachystegia glaucescens also has large bracteoles, K 5 (all small), C 0; A 10; G 1 (Tucker 2000). Resins found in some Detarieae contain distinctive bicylic diterpenes, and may be an apomorphy for a subgroup within the tribe (Fougère-Danezan et al. 2007). Pollen is also extremely variable (Banks & Klitgaard 2000; Banks 2003). There is amyloid in the cotyledons (Hegnauer & Grayer-Barkmeijer 1993), also found in Sclerolobieae (= Tachigalieae: see Kooiman 1960; Meier & Reid 1982). Redden et al. (2010) examined relationships in the Brownea clade, possible synapomorphies for it being an unchanneled leaf rachis, thread-like stipules, connate bracteoles, four sepals, and introrse anthers.

A clade made up of the ex-caesalpinioid Dialiinae seems well supported as sister to the rest of Fabaceae; the monotypic neotropical Poeppigia is sister to the rest of Dialiinae (Bruneau et al. 2008). The inflorescence is determinate, the fruit indehiscent (drupe or samara), and floral organs are often lost - for example, Dialium guineense has small bracteoles, and a floral formula of K 5, C 1 (small); A 2; G 1 (Legume Phylogeny Working Group 2013).

There are then two large clades. Faboideae are monophyletic, as are Mimosoideae in the old sense, but the recognition of the latter would make remaining Caesalpinioideae highly paraphyletic.

First large clade. In the [caesalpinioids plus Mimosoideae] clade, the poorly-supported Umtiza clade is sister to the rest. It includes taxa like Gleditsia, Gymnocladus and Ceratonia, several of which are dioecious and have smallish, greenish flowers sometimes with a poorly differentiated calyx and corolla - not plesiomorphic features (Herendeen et al. 2003a; Forest et al. 2007b; see also Redden & Herendeen 2006: morphological phylogenetic analysis; Fougère-Danezan et al. 2003, 2007, 2010: molecular and morphological studies; Legume Phylogeny Working Group 2013). Other ex-caesalpinioids with small, more or less simultaneously-opening flowers borne close together (e.g. Dimorphandra), are in this area of the tree (Luckow et al. 2003; Wojciechowski 2003; Bruneau et al. 2008a, b). They show considerable similarity to Mimosoideae in wood anatomy (Evans et al. 2006) and also in pollen, which is rather homogeneous although nearly always in monads (Banks & Lewis 2009). Genera like Pentaclethra are also to be included (c.f. Bouchenak-Khelladi et al. 2010b, but some confusion there?), while taxa like Dinizia, Pachyelasma and Erythrophleum, also with racemose inflorescence and small, more or less polysymmetric flowers with free sepals and petals (and ten stamens), were found to be part of a grade immediately basal to Mimosoideae (Bouchenak-Khelladi et al. 2010b). Caesalpinia, Cassia, and relatives are also basal to Mimosoideae, Dimorphandra, Peltophorum, etc. (Cardoso et al. 2012c). Taxa like Caesalpinia, Cassia, and Dimorphandra have large more or less monosymmetic/asymmetric flowers. In general, relationships between these ex-caesalpinioids remain unclear (Cardoso et al. 2012c; see also Manzanilla & Bruneau 2012; Legume Phylogeny Working Group 2013).

For phylogenetic relationships within Senna, see Marazzi et al. (2006), and for relationships within Chamaecrista, see de Souza Conceição et al. (2009).

Within Mimosoideae s. str., Ingeae, derived, with a valvate calyx and many stamens connate and forming a tube, are embedded in Acacieae (e.g. Clarke et al. 2000; Robinson & Harris 2000; Miller & Bayer 2000, 2001; Luckow et al. 2003; Jobson & Luckow 2007; Brown 2008; Brown et al. 2008; Bouchenak-Khelladi et al. 2010b; Miller & Seigler 2012). The old Acacia subgenus Acacia, which includes the bull's horn acacias, seems to be monophyletic, but Acacia s.l. is polyphyletic. Murphy et al. (2000, 2003, 2010 [relationships still only moderately resolved]) and Miller et al. (2003) discuss the phylogeny of Acacia s. str., the old subgenus Phyllodinae, and Miller and Bayer (2003) that of Vachellia, the old subgenus Acacia, and Senegalia, the old subgenus Aculeiferum (support for the monophyly of this is weak - Miller & Seigler 2012). Siegler (2003) summarized the phytochemistry of the complex, Evans et al. (2006) detailed wood anatomy, and Kergoat et al. (2007) noted what bruchids had to say about systematics of Acacia s.l.; see also Muelleria 26(1). 2008, a special issue on Acacia, and also World Wide Wattle website. Of other Mimosoideae, Mimosa may be monophyletic and sister to Piptadenia (Besseger et al. 2008); Simon et al. (2011) provide an extensive phylogeny of Mimosa, optimizing various characters on the tree. See Richardson et al. (2001b) for the diversification of Inga. Catalano et al. (2008) provide a phylogeny of the ecologically important New World genus Prosopis.

Second Large Clade. The following topology (simplified) aids in the discussion of relationships in the monophyletic Faboideae: [Swartzieae, Dipterygieae, etc. [Cladrastis, etc., [(= 50 KB inversion clade) Andira et al., Vatairea et al., Lecointea et al., genistoids: GEN, [Amorpheae + dalbergioids = dalbergioids s.l.: DAL], [baphioids: BAPH [(= non-protein amino acid accumulating clade) mirbelioids: MIRB [[Indigofereae + millettioids: MILL] [robinioids: ROB + Inverted Repeat Loss Clade: IRLC]]]]]]], seems moderately well supported (Wojciechowski 2003; McMahon & Sanderson 2006; Legume Phylogeny Working Group 2013). The [robinioids + IRLC] clade is the hologalegina clade (see Farruggia & Howard 2011 for possible nuclear markers). The tree here is based largely on Wojciechowski et al. (2004), Peters et al. (2010) and Cardoso et al. (2012c); see also the Legume Phylogeny Working Group (2013). McMahon and Sanderson (2006) provide a supermatrix analysis of 2228 species of Faboideae.

Within Faboideae, Swartzieae, woody, nodulators, with remarkable flowers and arillate seeds, may be sister to the rest, but support is weak (Ireland et al. 2000; Pennington et al. 2000; Lavin et al. 2005). Swartzieae are largely made up of Swartzia s. str. (see Torke & Schaal 2008 for a phylogeny). Other clades in this area include Amburana and the Dipterygieae, etc., but the relationships of the two clades is unclear (Cardoso et al. 2012c), also the lecointeoids (Mansano et al. 2004) and the vataireoids (Cardoso et al. 2013: leaves in groups at ends of branches).

50 KB inversion clade.

GEN: Crisp et al. (2000) outline relationships in Genisteae, with their distinctive quinolizidine alkaloids (see also van Wyk 2003 for chemistry). For relationships within Crotalarieae, see Boatwright et al. (2008b, esp. c) and of Lotononis and relatives in particular, Boatwright et al. (2011: also character evolution), and for those within Psoraleae, see Egan and Crandall (2008). For relationships in Canary Island Genisteae, see Percy and Cronk (2002), for diversification in Cape genistoids, see Edwards and Hawkins (2007); for relationships in Ononis, see Liston (1995), and Cytisus, Cubas et al. (2002).

DAL: For the phylogeny of dalbergioid legumes, see Lavin et al. (2000); desmodioid nodules, small oblate nodules of determinate growth that are always associated with a lateral root, are common here (Lavin et al. 2001). The large genus Machaerium is more related to Aeschyomene section Ochopodium (that genus is polyphyletic) than to Dalbergia, so the apparent similarities in habit, fruit, etc, need re-evaluating (Ribeiro et al. 2007). Cardoso et al. (2012a, b) noted that polysymmetric flowers have evolved several times in this clade. For relationships within Amorpheae and the floral evolution of the latter (petals may be lost, or all look rather similar; a stemonozone may be developed; etc.), see McMahon and Hufford (2002, 2004, 2005) and McMahon (2005). For relationships in Arachis, see Krapovickas and Gregory (2007).

Non-protein amino acid accumulating clade. Canavanine +; whole genome duplication?

MIRB: For relationships in or revisions of Mirbelia s.l., see Crisp and Cook (2003a, b), Gastrolobium, Chandler et al. (2001), Pultenaea, Orthia et al. (2005), and Jacksonia, Chappill et al. (2007).

MILL: Members of the millettioid clade have a pseudoracemose inflorescence with more than a single flower at each node (Tucker 1987a); see da Sila (2012) for a phylogeny of part of this clade, Lonchocarpus is split. [Milletieae + Indigofereae] may share early expression of monosymmetry in floral development (Paulino et al. 2011). For the delimitation of Millettieae, see Lavin et al. (1998); Hu (200) and Hu et al. (2000) studied their phylogeny, Kajita et al. (2001: rbcL) that of Millettieae and relatives. Stefanovic et al. (2009: eight chloroplast genes) concentrated on relationships among the some 2,000 species of Millettieae-phaseoloids, finding substantial resolution;, i.a. that Mucuna was sister to Desmodium and its relatives, and the combined clade was sister to the rest of the group, which also includes Cajanus, Vigna, Erythrina etc. For a phylogeny of Phaseolus itself, see Delgado-Salinas et al. (1999, 2006); Vigna has to be dismembered (Delgado-Salinas et al. 2011). Indigofereae have true racemes (Wojciechowski et al. 2004). Barker et al. (2000) and Schrire et al. (2009) disentangle relationships within Indigofereae, finding considerable phylogenetic structure (i.a. there are four major clades within Indigofera) that can be linked with both morphology and ecology. Thompson et al. (2001) looked at relationships within Brongniartieae, members of which are Australian-South American. The pantropical Erythrina is not monophyletic (de Moura et al. 2011). For the phylogeny of Derris and its immediate relatives, see Sirichamorn et al. (2012).

Hologalegina clade

ROB: For the phylogeny of Robinia and its relatives, which include Lotus and Sesbania, which are quite close, see Wojciechowski et al. (2000), Lavin et al. (2003), and Farruggia and Wojciechowski (2009), and of Canary Island Loteae, see Allan et al. (2004).

IRLC: leaves lack pulvini, FLO/LFY genes expressed also in the leaf; CA primordia +; A initiation bidirectional, overlap in the timing of C, A, and G initiation; chloroplast IR lost.

Classification. For a summary of the classification of the family, see the Legume Phylogeny Working Group (2013); because relationships at the deeper nodes are poorly known, one must expect changes in the names for the major elements of the family scaffolding. The Legume Phylogeny Working Group (2013) also summarize many lower-level changes. For generic limits around Gastrolobium, see Chandler et al. (2001), for those around Vigna, see Delgado-Salinas et al. (2011), and for those around Lotononis, see Boatwright et al. (2011); in general, a fair bit of adjustment to generic limits is needed (e.g. see Percy & Cronk 2002; Allan et al. 2004; Ribeiro et al. 2007; Cardoso et al. 2012). Unique combinations of floral characters can be used to recognize genera around Crotalaria (Le Roux & van Wyk 2012).

The old Acacia subgenus Acacia, which includes the bull's horn acacias, seems to be monophyletic, but Acacia s.l. is polyphyletic. As Maslin (2001) noted sadly of the 955 or so species then placed in Acacia for the Flora of Australia treatment, "we are obliged to present the flora treatment [i.e., everything in the one genus] in the absence of a more meaningful classification". However, things are changing (Maslin et al. 2003) - the argument now is over what names to call the bits into which Acacia s.l. is to be divided (see above). See Miller and Bayer (2003) for Vachellia, the old subgenus Acacia, and Senegalia, the old subgenus Aculeiferum; see also Siegler et al. (2006) for the American segregate Mariosousa. However, some remain deeply unsatisified with this nomenclatural solution.

See Pennington (1997) for a monograph of Inga and Dexter et al. (2010) for some species limits there. For a sectional classification of the neotropical Swartzia (Faboideae), see Torke and Mansano (2009).Thompson (2001) provides a careful study of E. Australian Hovea (Brongniartieae).

Previous Relationships. Fabaceae s.l. are often referred to their own order, as in both Cronquist (1981) and Takhtajan (1997), and then they are usually divided into three families. They can be confused with Connaraceae (Oxalidales), although the latter lack stipules, their flowers are polysymmetric and have stamens of two distinctly different lengths, and their gynoecium is frequently multicarpellate. However, in both the RP122 chloroplast gene has moved to the nucleus, and the ovaries of both have adaxial furrows (c.f. the ventral slit: Matthews & Endress 2002). Fabaceae have also been linked with Sapindaceae (e.g. Dickison 1981b), here in the malvids, but there is little support other than the common possession of compound leaves and non-protein amino acids for such an association.

Botanical Trivia. There has been as much diversification of the ycf4 protein, involved in photosystem 1 assembly, within Lathyrus as there has been between cyanobacteria and other angiosperms (Magee et al. 2010).

The seeds of Mora megistosperma (Caesalpinieae) are, at ca 18 x 12 cm, perhaps the largest of any broad-leaved angiosperm (Lewis et al. 2005).

[Surianaceae + Polygalaceae]: ?

Evolution. Divergence & Distribution. The crown group age of this clade is 66-68 m.y. (Wikström et al. 2004).

SURIANACEAE Arnott, nom. cons.   Back to Fabales

Woody; ellagic acid?; cork also in inner cortex; storying +/0; wood fluorescing?; vessels in radial multiples; (sieve tube plastids with starch grains and protein filaments forming a peripheral shell); nodes 3:3 (1:1 - Suriana); (medullary vascular bundle - Recchia); sclereids +; petiole bundle arcuate to annular; leaves spiral or two-ranked, (unifacial; pinnate, leaflets alternate, articulated), (stipules 0 - Suriana); inflorescence cymose, usu. terminal; pedicels articulated; K connate basally or not, quincuncial, C (0), contorted, shortly clawed or not; ?receptacular tissue ± forming a ring around the C base; A obdiplostemonous (= and opposite sepals); pollen surface variable (vermiform - Cadellia); nectary 0; (gynophore +, nectariferous - Recchia), G 1-5, when 5 opposite C, styluli ± gynobasic, stigma clavate to capitate; ovules surrounded by mucilage, 1-5/carpel, campylotropous, unitegmic, integument 3-7 cells across, parietal tissue 4-5 cells across, (nucellar cap +), hypostase +; megaspore mother cells several, antipodal cells ± degenerate; fruit a berry, drupe or nut, endocarp with outer layer of palisade sclereids, other cells apart from the inner epidermis isodiametric, K persistent, accrescent or not; exotestal cells enlarged, cuboidal, tanniniferous, rest crushed [ca 7 cells thick]; chalazal endosperm haustorium +, endosperm 0, embryo green, curved or folded, cotyledons incumbent; n = ?; germination epigeal, phanerocotylar.

5[list]/8 Mostly Australian, also Mexico (Recchia), pantropical (Suriana maritima) (map: from van Steenis & van Balgooy 1966 [blue - Suriana maritima]; FloraBase xi.2010). [Photo - Flower.]

Chemistry, Morphology, etc. The vegetatively "atypical" Suriana is the only genus whose embryology has been studied and the whole family is little known chemically. The family is vegetatively rather heterogeneous, although its wood anatomy is quite homogeneous (Webber 1936). The exotesta of Suriana is described as being green (Rao 1970). Both Cadellia and Recchia have thickened cell walls in the exocarp and sclereids in their bark parenchyma (Crayn et al. 1995).

For more information, see Jadin (1901) and Boas (1913: both vegetative anatomy), Mauritzon (1939: embryology), Gutzwiller (1961: general), Wiger (1935), Anantaswamy Rau (1940), Rao (1970) and Heo and Tobe (1994: all embryology, etc.), Hegnauer (1973, as Simaroubaceae: chemistry), Weberling et al. (1980: general); Gadek and Quinn (1992: pericarp), Crayn et al. (1995: relationships), Schneider (2006: general), and floral development (Bello et al. 2007/8: Suriana only). Additional data from: Cadellia - Benson s.n. = NSW 408528 (anatomy); Stylobasium - Latz 12864 (fruit), Strid 20708 (anatomy).

Phylogeny. [[Recchia + Lundellia] [Suriana [Cadellia + Stylobasium]] are the relationships in the family (Forest et al. 2007b).

Classification. Although the sieve tube plastids of Stylobasium are distinctive, having sieve starch grains and protein filaments forming a peripheral shell (Behnke et al. 1996), there seems little reason to recognise Stylobasiaceae as a monotypic family since three more would be needed.

Previous Relationships. Surianaceae were included in Rosales-Simaroubaceae (here in Sapindales) by Cronquist (1981) and in Rutales as a separate family by Takhtajan (1997).

Synonymy: Stylobasiaceae J. Agardh

POLYGALACEAE Hoffmannsegg & Link, nom. cons.   Back to Fabales

Saponins +; nodes 1:1; styloids 0; (tracheidal idioblasts +); (stomata other than anomocytic); plant glabrous or with unicellular hairs; branching from previous flush; axillary buds 2 or more; lamina entire, often paired glands [crateriform extrafloral nectaries] or thorns at nodes (elsewhere); flowers monosymmetric, ± keeled; K quincuncial, caducous, C 5, keel ± apparent, (not clawed); A 8, ± connate, basally adnate to C, median adaxial A often absent; pollen polycolporate, surface psilate or foveolate; (disc excentric); G connate, style long, stigma dry; micropyle zigzag (endo-, exostomal), exostome often long, outer integument 2-5 cells across, inner integument (1-)2(-3) cells across, parietal tissue 2-3 cells across, nucellar cap ca 3 cells across, suprachalazal region ± massive; fruit a berry; testa multiplicative, exotesta subsclerotic or otherwise distinct, endotestal cells ± palisade, U-thickened, crystalliferous; endosperm copious or not, ± starchy; rpl22 gene transferred from chloroplast to nucleus [?sampling].

Ca 21 [list]/965 - four tribes below. World-wide, except the Arctic and New Zealand. [Photo - Flower.]

1. Xanthophylleae Chodat

Shrubs or trees; growth sympodial, terminal bud aborts; plants Al-accumulators; wood parenchyma apotracheal, diffuse; glands at nodes, (conspicuous domatia on leaves); inflorescence indeterminate; K quincuncial, unequal, C contorted, (no keel), (adaxial petals with colour patterning); A (7-10); G [2], placentation parietal, stigma small, bilobed (capitate); ovules 2-8(-20)/carpel, apotropous, in two rows, outer integument 4-12 cells across; (fruit irregularly loculicidally dehiscent); testa strongly multiplicative, vascularized; hypostase massive; n = ?

1/95. Indo-Malesia (map: from van der Meijden 1982).

Synonymy: Xanthophyllaceae Reveal & Hoogland

[Polygaleae, Carpolobieae, Moutabeae]: inflorescence cymose; A often monadelphous, anthers with apical pores/slits; 1 ovule/carpel; seed hairy (0), exostomal/funicular aril + (0).

More or less world-wide (Map: from Wickens 1976; Frankenberg & Klaus 1980; Trop. Afr. Fl. Pl. Ecol. Distr. 1. 2003; GBIF 2009; Flora of China; Australia's Virtual Herbarium xii.2012; orange from Paiva 1998).

2. Polygaleae Chodat

Herbs (echlorophyllous mycoheterotrophs), lianes, shrubs; (ergoline alkaloids +), at least some smell of wintergreen, tannins 0 [Polygala]; (successive cambia +); pits vestured; banded paratracheal parenchyma +; (glands at nodes); (2 abaxial lateral K, minute), two adaxial lateral K = wings, two connate adaxial C = the standard, abaxial C = the keel, often fringed [with crest], 2 abaxial-lateral C minute; (A 2-7), anthers with apical pores; G [2] (adaxial member suppressed), stylar canal + [Polygala], stigma bilobed, ± asymmetric; (postament - Epirrhizanthes?); fruit an often flattened capsule, drupe or samara, (K persistent, green - Polygala, etc.); hilar/chalazal elaiosome + (0); testa ?multiplicative; n = 6+, very variable.

18/830: Polygala (?350), Monnina (180), Muraltia (120), Securidaca (80). World-wide, except the Arctic and New Zealand (Map: from Wickens 1976; Frankenberg & Klaus 1980; Trop. Afr. Fl. Pl. Ecol. Distr. 1. 2003; GBIF 2009; Flora of China; Australia's Virtual Herbarium xii.2012; orange from Paiva 1998).

3. Carpolobieae Eriksen

(glands at nodes); (C contorted), abaxial C keeled; A (4) 5, anthers with short confluent apical slits; G [3], stigma capitate; exotesta fleshy [?both]; n = 9-11.

2/6. Tropical Africa.

4. Moutabeae Chodat

Woody, (lianes); plants Al-accumulators; successive cambia +; banded apotracheal parenchyma +; petiole bundle annular, with wing bundles; glands on leaves (and at nodes); inflorescence often racemose; K adnate to C, abaxial C not keeled; A (6-10), anthers with short confluent apical slits; G [3-8], stigma capitate; funicular aril +; n = 14.

4/15. Tropical America, New Guinea to New Caledonia. [Photos - Flowers, Flower - Close-up, Petioles, Branch, Petioles with ants, Flower with moth]

Synonymy: Diclidantheraceae J. Agardh, Moutabeaceae Pfeiffer

• Polygalaceae are woody or herbaceous plants that may be recognised by their often yellowish-drying simple and entire leaves; there are quite frequently paired glands at the nodes or glands or domatia on the leaf blades. The flowers are usually monosymmetric and more or less papilionaceous. They range from having five rather large sepals and five petals - not strongly papilionaceous - to having two of the sepals much enlarged and coloured (the "wings" of the flower), two of the petals much reduced, and the three remaining petals modified as "standard" and "keel" - strongly papilionaceous. There are two or more carpels and a single style.

Evolution. Divergence & Distribution. Wikström et al. (2001, 2004) date the origin of the clade to 68-66 m.y. (ca 84 m.y. in Bello et al. 2009: c.f. topology), with diversification beginning in the Tertiary (65.5-)57.4(-49.3) m.y.a. (Bello et al. 2009). The distinctive Paleosecuridaca curtisii has recently been described from the Palaeocene of North Dakota; although in gross morphology its fruits are remarkably like those of Securidaca and the seeds have a testa with a well developed palisade layer, there are two seeds per carpel (Pigg et al. 2008b).

Evolution of elaiosomes in Polygalaceae is dated to (69.9-)54-50.5(-35.2) m.y.a., well after that of the ant clades concerned; they may have spurred diversification in the family (Forest et al. 2007b). Muraltia, also myrmecochorous and with some 120 species found mostly in the Cape region of South Africa, may have diversified quite recently, mostly within the last ca 10 m.y. (Forest et al. 2007a); Verboom et al. (2009) thought diversification started in the Fynbos (21.4-)18.5(-14.1) m.y.a. and in the Succulent Karoo (4-)2.5(-1.3) m.y.a.

Bello et al. (2012) list a number of apomorphies for the family and of several clades within it.

Ecology & Physiology. Xanthophyllum is one of the five most diverse genera in West Malesian t.l.r.f. (Davies et al. 2005).

The myco-heterotrophic Epirixanthes is presumably asociated with glomeromycote fungi, one of the few examples of a myco-heterotrophic broad-leaved angiosperm with this kind of fungal association.

Pollination Biology & Seed Dispersal. The flower in Polygalaceae is quite differently constructed from that of Fabaceae (Westerkamp & Weber 1999; Bello et al. 2010, but see Prenner 2004d), although quite often both looking and being functionally similar. Note that the flowers of Polygala, which in overall appearance are particularly like those of some Fabaceae, do not represent the plesiomorphic condition of Polygalaceae; overall floral variation in Polygalaceae is considerable.

In at least some North American species of Polygala pollen is presented on the sterile lobes of the asymmetric stigma (secondary pollen presentation: Weekley & Brothers 1996; see Castro et al. 2008a for details; Bello et al. 2010 for details of stigma morphology).

Ant dispersal is quite common in Polygaleae, and hilar/chalazal elaiosomes (the former are called caruncles) may be an apomorphy here, although there may have been more than one gain (and loss) of these features (Forest et al. 2007b; Lengyel et al. 2009, 2010 for myrmecochory).

Bacterial/Fungal Associations. Epirixanthes is an echlorophyllous myco-heterotroph.

Vegetative Variation. Although genera like Xanthophyllum and some Moutabeae may have paired glands at the nodes, other genera seem to lack anything even faintly like stipules, and where stipules might be lost in this part of the tree is uncertain. De Aguiar-Dias et al. (2011) have recently suggested that the paired nectary glands at the base of the leaf in Polygala laureola are indeed stipules because they receive a vascular bundle from the single foliar vascular trace.

Chemistry, Morphology, etc. Polygala myrtifolia has eight stamens; the two stamens in the median plane, so on opposite sides of the flower, appear to have been lost (Prenner 2004d); see Bello et al. (2010) for other floral diagrams. The degree of connation of the filaments varies, as does that of their sometimes rather slight adnation to the petals. For floral morphology and development of Polygaleae, see Krüger and Robbertse (1988) and Krüger et al. (1988), and for that of the family as a whole, see Bello et al. (2010, 2012). The tricolpate pollen of Balgooya is probably derived; some Polygalaceae such as Heterosamara have asymmetric, almost boat-shaped pollen grains (Banks et al. 2008). Some species of Polygala, at least, have a stylar canal (Castro et al. 2008b). Monnina seems to have a nucellar cap ca 6 cells across, while the inner integument of Securidaca is up to 9 cells across in the endostomal region (Verkeke 1985).

Additional information is taken from Eriksen (1993a) and especially from Eriksen and Persson (2006), both general, and Johow (1910: Epirrhizanthes), Verkeke (1984, 1991) and Takhtajan (2000), all ovule and seed, Paiva (1998: Polygala, especially Africa and Madagascar), and Banks et al. (2008: pollen morphology and evolution). For chemistry, see Hegnauer (1969, 1990), and for wood and leaf anatomy of Moutabeae, see Styer (1977). Also see the Polygalaceae website (Freire-Fierro 2001 onwards).

Phylogeny. Of the four groups mentioned above, Moutabeae may be paraphyletic (Persson 2001: trnL-F), although adding rbcL data suggests they are monophyletic (Forest, in Eriksen & Persson 2006), and morphology points in this direction (Eriksen 1993b); the other three groups appear to be monophyletic (although Carpolobieae are only weakly supported). However, all four tribes are strongly supported in a three-gene analysis (Forest et al. 2007b), and Xanthophylleae are sister to the other three tribes; relationships between the three were unclear and remain so in Bello et al. (2012). Polygala and Bredemeyera are grossly paraphyletic (Persson 2001). See Eriksen (1993b) for a morphological phylogeny.

Classification. For a monograph of Xanthophyllum, see van der Meijden (1982). Abbott (2011) split Polygala in the North American flora, and the dismemberment of the genus proceeds apace.

Previous Relationships. The Polygalales of Cronquist (1981) included seven families, the mutual affinities of five of which were described as being "widely acce pted". These include Xanthophyllaceae (= Polygalaceae), Vochysiaceae (Myrtales), Trigoniaceae (Malpighiales) and Tremandraceae (= Elaeocarpaceae, Oxalidales). For Emblingiaceae, often included in (e.g. Cronquist 1981; Mabberley 1997) or near (e.g. Takhtajan 1997) Polygalaceae, see Brassicales.