LIGNOPHYTA

Plant a shrub or tree; true roots +, origin endogeneous, root cap +, apex multicellular; endodermis +; shoot apical meristem multicellular; lateral meristems +, cork cambium producing cork abaxially, vascular cambium producing phloem abaxially and xylem adaxially; lamina with mean venation density 1.8 mm/mm2 (to 5 mm/mm2).

EXTANT SEED PLANTS/SPERMATOPHYTA

Plant woody, evergreen; nicotinic acid metabolised to trigonelline, (cyanogenesis via tyrosine pathway); primary cell walls rich in xyloglucans and/or glucomannans, 25-30% pectin [Type I walls]; lignins derived from (some) sinapyl and particularly coniferyl alcohols, thus containing p-hydroxyphenyl and guaiacyl lignin units, so no Maüle reaction; root xylem exarch, cork cambium deep seated; arbuscular mycorrhizae +; shoot apical meristem interface specific plasmodesmatal network; stem with vascular tissue around central pith [eustele], vascular bundles with interfascicular tissue, ectophloic, endodermis 0, xylem endarch; wood homoxylous, tracheids and rays alone, tracheid/tracheid pits circular, bordered; mature sieve tube/cell lacking functioning nucleus, sieve tube plastids with starch grains; phloem fibres +; stem cork cambium superficial; branches exogenous; leaves with single trace from vascular sympodium ["nodes 1:1"]; vascular bundles collateral [stem: phloem external; leaf: phloem abaxial]; stomata morphology?, pore opening controlled by abscisic acid; leaves with petiole and lamina, spiral, development basipetal, blade simple; axillary buds +, not associated with all leaves; prophylls two, lateral; plant heterosporous, sporangia borne on sporophylls; microsporophylls aggregated in indeterminate cones/strobili; true pollen +, grains mono[ana]sulcate, exine and intine homogeneous; ovules unitegmic, parietal tissue 2+ cells across, megaspore tetrad tetrahedral, only one megaspore develops, megasporangium indehiscent; male gametophyte development first endo- then exosporic, tube developing from distal end of grain, to ca 2 mm from receptive surface to egg, gametes two, developing after pollination, with cell walls, flagellae numerous; ovules increasing considerably in size between pollination and fertilization, female gametophyte endosporic, initially syncytial, walls then surrounding individual nuclei; seeds "large" [ca 8 mm3], but not much bigger than ovule, with morphological dormancy; embryo cellular ab initio, endoscopic, plane of first cleavage of zygote transverse, suspensor +, short-minute, embryo straight, shoot and root at opposite ends [allorrhizic], white, cotyledons 2; plastid transmission maternal; ycf2 gene in inverted repeat, two copies of LEAFY gene, PHY gene duplications [three - [BP [A/N + C/O]] - copies], nrDNA with 5.8S and 5S rDNA in separate clusters; mitochondrial nad1 intron 2 and coxIIi3 intron and trans-spliced introns present.

MAGNOLIOPHYTA

Lignans, O-methyl flavonols, dihydroflavonols, triterpenoid oleanane, non-hydrolysable tannins, quercetin and/or kaempferol +, apigenin and/or luteolin scattered, [cyanogenesis in ANITA grade?], S [syringyl] lignin units common, positive Maüle reaction [syringyl:guaiacyl ratio more than 2-2.5:1], and hemicelluloses as xyloglucans; root apical meristem intermediate-open; root vascular tissue oligarch [di- to pentarch], lateral roots arise opposite or immediately to the side of [when diarch] xylem poles; origin of epidermis with no clear pattern [probably from inner layer of root cap], trichoblasts [differentiated root hair-forming cells] 0, exodermis +; shoot apex with tunica-corpus construction, tunica 2-layered; reaction wood ?, associated gelatinous fibres [g-fibres] with innermost layer of secondary cell wall rich in cellulose and poor in lignin; starch grains simple; primary cell wall mostly with pectic polysaccharides, poor in mannans; tracheid:tracheid [end wall] plates with scalariform pitting, wood parenchyma +; sieve tubes enucleate, sieve plate with pores (0.1-)0.5-10< µm across, cytoplasm with P-proteins, cytoplasm not occluding pores of sieve plate, companion cell and sieve tube from same mother cell; sugar transport in phloem passive; nodes unilacunar [1:?]; stomata brachyparacytic [ends of subsidiary cells level with ends of pore], outer stomatal ledges producing vestibule; lamina formed from the primordial leaf apex, margins toothed, development of venation acropetal, secondary veins pinnate, overall growth ± diffuse, venation hierarchical, fine venation reticulate, veins (1.7-)4.1(-5.7) mm/mm2, endings free; most/all leaves with axillary buds; flowers perfect, pedicellate, ± haplomorphic, parts spiral [esp. the A], free, numbers unstable, development in general centripetal; P not sharply differentiated, with a single trace, outer members not enclosing the rest of the bud, often smaller than inner members; A many, filament not sharply distinguished from anther, stout, broad, with a single trace, anther introrse, tetrasporangiate, sporangia in two groups of two [dithecal], ± embedded in the filament, with at least outer secondary parietal cells dividing, each theca dehiscing longitudinally, endothecium +, endothecial cells elongated at right angles to long axis of anther; tapetum glandular, cells binucleate; microspore mother cells in a block, microsporogenesis successive, walls developing by centripetal furrowing; pollen subspherical, tectum continuous or microperforate, ektexine columellar, endexine thin, compact, lamellate only in the apertural regions; nectary 0; G superior, free, several, ascidiate, with postgenital occlusion by secretion, stylulus short, hollow, cavity not lined by distinct epidermal layer, stigma ± decurrent, dry [not secretory]; ovules few [?1]/carpel, marginal, anatropous, bitegmic, micropyle endostomal, outer integument 2-3 cells across, often largely subdermal in origin, inner integument 2-3 cells across, often dermal in origin, parietal tissue 1-3 cells across [crassinucellate], nucellar cap?; megasporocyte single, hypodermal, megaspore tetrad linear, functional megaspore chalazal, lacking sporopollenin and cuticle; female gametophyte four-celled [one module, nucleus of egg cell sister to one of the polar nuclei]; ovule not increasing in size between pollination and fertilization; pollen binucleate at dispersal, male gametophyte trinucleate, germinating in less than 3 hours, pollination siphonogamous, tube elongated, growing between cells, growth rate 20-20,000 µm/hour, outer wall pectic, inner wall callose, with callose plugs, penetration of ovules via micropyle [porogamous], whole process takes ca 18 hours, distance to first ovule 1.1-2.1 mm; male gametes lacking cell walls, flagellae 0, double fertilization +, ovules aborting unless fertilized; P deciduous in fruit; seed exotestal, becoming much larger than ovule at time of fertilization; endosperm diploid, cellular [micropylar and chalazal domains develop differently, first division oblique, micropylar end initially with a single large cell, divisions uniseriate, chalazal cell smaller, divisions in several planes], copious, oily and/or proteinaceous; embryogenesis cellular; germination hypogeal, seedlings/young plants sympodial; Arabidopsis-type telomeres [(TTTAGGG)n]; whole genome duplication, ndhB gene 21 codons enlarged at the 5' end, single copy of LEAFY and RPB2 gene, knox genes extensively duplicated [A1-A4], AP1/FUL gene, paleo AP3 and PI genes [paralogous B-class genes] +, with "DEAER" motif, SEP3/LOFSEP and three copies of the PHY gene, [PHYB [PHYA + PHYC]].

[NYMPHAEALES [AUSTROBAILEYALES [[CHLORANTHALES + MAGNOLIIDS] [MONOCOTS [CERATOPHYLLALES + EUDICOTS]]]]]: vessels +, elements with elongated scalariform perforation plates; wood fibres +; axial parenchyma diffuse or diffuse-in-aggregates; pollen monosulcate [anasulcate], tectum reticulate-perforate [here?]; ?genome duplication; "DEAER" motif in AP3 and PI genes lost, gaps in these genes.

[AUSTROBAILEYALES [[CHLORANTHALES + MAGNOLIIDS] [MONOCOTS [CERATOPHYLLALES + EUDICOTS]]]]: essential oils in specialized cells [lamina and P ± pellucid-punctate]; tension wood 0; tectum reticulate; anther wall with outer secondary parietal cell layer dividing; carpels plicate; nucellar cap + [character lost where in eudicots?]; 12BP [4 amino acids] deletion in P1 gene.

[[CHLORANTHALES + MAGNOLIIDS] [MONOCOTS [CERATOPHYLLALES + EUDICOTS]]] / MESANGIOSPERMAE: benzylisoquinoline alkaloids +; polyacetate derived anthraquinones + [?level]; outer epidermal walls of root elongation zone with cellulose fibrils oriented transverse to root axis; P more or less whorled, 3-merous [possible positiion]; embryo sac bipolar, 8 nucleate, antipodal cells persisting; endosperm triploid; ?germination.  Back to Main Tree

(1->3),(1->4)-ß-D-glucans

Evolution. Divergence & Distribution. Bell et al. (2010: Chloranthaceae sister to [Magnoliidae + everything else], but not monocots) suggested ages for this node of (152-)140(-128) or (135-)127(-119) m.y. depending on the method used. Clarke et al. (2011: 95% credibility intervals; also other estimates) a somewhat older age of (179-)152(-133) m.y., N. Zhang et al. (2012) an age of (163-)145(-133) m.y., and Magallón et al. (2013: with temporal constraints) an age of around (180.7-)158.7-151.6(-137.7) m.y. for this clade. Some other age estimates are yet older, ranging from (200-)174(-153) m.y. (with eudicot calibration) to (210-)184(-160) m.y. (without: Smith et al. 2010).

For the distribution of isoquinoline alkaloids, alternatively known as 1-benzyltetrahydroisoquinoline alkaloids, 1-btiq alkaloids, see Waterman (1999, 2007). How to optimise them on the tree is unclear. They appear to occur in Chloranthaceae, the magnoliids, and eudicots, so if there is a clade [Chloranthaceae + magnoliids] [monocots [Ceratophyllaceae + eudicots]], as is provisionally recognized in this site, they may be best optimised here.

Chemistry, Morphology, etc. The betalains of core Caryophyllales have biosynthetic similarities with these alkaloids. For the orientation of cellulose fibrils in the outer epidermal walls of root elongation zone, see Kerstens and Verbelen (2002); I do not know what happens in the ANITA grade and in gymnosperms, and magnoliids and eudicots are very poorly sampled. This is perhaps the best place to put triploid endosperm on the tree; the other would be as a synapomorphy for all angiosperms, but in that case it would subsequently be lost twice, or lost once and then regained.

Phylogeny. Relationships between the lineages immediately above the basal pectinations in the main tree, the ANITA grade (Amborellales, Nymphaeales and Austrobaileyales here), are being clarified, although some are still a little uncertain. The topology of the main tree in this area thus differs somewhat from that in A.P.G. II (2003). For further information, see especially the discussion immediately preceding the Magnoliales, i.e. the magnoliid clade, eudicots, and monocots are the other clades involved.

[CHLORANTHALES [[MAGNOLIALES + LAURALES] [CANELLALES + PIPERALES]]]: sesquiterpenes +; seed endotestal.

Evolution. Divergence & Distribution. Moore et al. (2010: 95% highest posterior density) estimate an age of (141-)136(-129) m.y. for this node. Clarke et al. (2011: 95% credibility intervals) suggested a somewhat older age of (176-)149(-128) m.y., Soltis et al. (2008) estimated (168-)131(-126) m.y., and Magallón et al. (2013) an age of around 149.1 m.y..

Soltis et al. (2008) suggest ages for a number of branching points wiin this clade, but they are based on the topology [monocots [Chloranthaceae, magnoliids [Ceratophyllaceae + eudicots]]]. Doyle and Endress (2010) thought that the Pennipollis plant, from ca 120-115 m.y.a. in Portugal and originally linked to the monocots (Petersen et al. 2000b), was sister to Chloranthaceae, a family they considered to be sister to all angiosperms apart from the ANITA grade.

The character, "endotesta palisade, crystaliferous", could perhaps be placed at this node.

CHLORANTHALES Martius  Main Tree, Synapomorphies.

Branching from the current flush; neolignans ?+; nodes often swollen; leaves opposite, joined by sheath, lamina margins toothed, teeth with lateral vein and others [hydathodal]; stipules +; flowers very small, monosymmetric by reduction, parts whorled; P 0, A 1, abaxial; G 1, ascidiate, postgenital fusion by secretion; ovule 1/carpel, apical, pendulous, straight; antipodal cells proliferating; fruit fleshy; endotesta palisade, lignified, crystalliferous; (endosperm starchy, grains clustered). - 1 family, 4 genera, 75 species.

Note: Possible apomorphies are now being added throughout the site; they are in bold. However, the actual level at which many of these features, particularly the more cryptic ones, should be assigned is unclear. This is because there is very considerable homoplasy, with variation within and between clades, for most characters. Furthermore, the basic information for all too many characters is very incomplete, often coming from taxa well embedded in the clade of interest and so making the position of any putative apomorphy uncertain. Then there is the not-so-trivial issue of how ancestral states are reconstructed...

Includes Chloranthaceae.

Synonymy: Chloranthineae Thorne & Reveal - Chloranthanae Doweld - Chloranthidae C. Y. Wu

CHLORANTHACEAE Sims, nom. cons.   Back to Chloranthales

Chloranthaceae

Evergreen; wood storied; (vessels 0); primary stem with vascular cylinder; rays 6-10-seriate; nodes 1:1, 1:2, or ± 3:3, 2 traces from the central or all gaps, (+ split laterals); (sclereids - Hedyosmum); cuticle wax crystalloids 0; stomata variable, laterocytic, etc.; branching from current flush; lamina vernation conduplicate [Chloranthus], teeth with clear persistent swollen cap into which proceed higher order veins as well as secondaries or tertiaries; stipules small, paired, interpetiolar, usually on rim of sheath; (plants dioecious); inflorescence spicate (branched), flowers sessile; staminate flowers: A ± latrorse, lobed, or connective produced or not, (glandular); pistillode 0; carpellate flowers: (P +, ± connate, with windows - Hedyosmum); staminode 0; (G inferior), stigma ± expanded or not, dry ?or wet; ovules with outer integument 4-8 (2 - Ascarina) cells across, inner integument (3-)7-10 cells across, (micropyle bistomal), parietal tissue 6-8 cells across, nucellar cap +/0; fruit baccate or drupaceous, (bracts accrescent and succulent), (P persistent); coat ± tanniniferous, (mesotesta lignified - Chloranthus), tegmen ± crushed, (exo- and mesotegmen fibrous), endotegmen initially subpalisade; n = 8, 14, 15, chromosomes 1-4(-10: Hedyosmum) µm long.

4[list]/75: Hedyosmum (45). Tropics and subtropics, not Africa (Madagascar - Ascarina only) (map: from Verdcourt 1986; Todzia 1988). [Photo - Leaf, Flower.]

Evolution. Divergence & Distribution. Despite the age of the clade, it has been suggested that crown group diversification is quite recent, being mostly within the last 60-29 m.y. (Zhang & Renner 2003b; Soltis et al. 2008). However, Antonelli and Sanmartín (2011) suggested ages of (112-)111(-110) or thereabouts for the crown group, and all genera had separated by ca 90 m.y. (from fossil data). Diversification within Hedyosmum could be dated to (57.1-)43.3(-30.1) or (43-)35.6-(25.9) m.y.a. depending on the method used, and was in part associated with the Andean uplift, although the family as a whole showed a pattern of gradual extinction over time (Antonelli & Sanmartín 2011). Magallón and Castillo (2009) estimated the crown group age at ca 153.6 or 125 m.y., while Zhang et al. (2011) provided another series of age estimates, some of which are dramatically older than the others depending on their calibration and the analytical methods used.

Chloranthaceous fossils are common, diverse, and world-wide in distribution in the early angiosperm fossil record. Distinctive fossil pollen grains, Asteropollis, are first known from the Barremian-Aptian of the early Cretaceous, some 125 m.y. before present (Friis et al. 1997; Doyle 1999; Eklund 1999, but c.f. Clarke et al. 2011, questions over dating); these grains have been identified as belonging to Hedyosmum (see also Crepet & Nixon 1996; Eklund et al. 2003; Friis et al. 2005). Doyle and Endress (2007) and Clarke et al. (2011) discuss other palynomorphs that have been associated with Chloranthaceae; some fossil androecia assigned to the family have spiraperturate pollen that is in situ (Crane et al. 1989)!

For general morphological evolution, living and fossil Chloranthaceae integrated, see Eklund et al. (2004). Endress (2001) emphasized what he considered to be the plesiomorphic floral morphology of the family. However, there is no evidence that it is a member of the ANITA grade, and several aspects of its floral morphology and development, including the loss of any perianth, are clearly derived (e.g. Li et al. 2005). Given the relationships within the family (see below), simple parsimony suggests that perfect flowers are developed from imperfect flowers (see also Doyle & Endress 2011).

Chemistry, Morphology, etc. Although benzylisoquinoline alkaloids apparently have not been detected in Chloranthaceae, (S)norcolaurine synthase activity is high, suggesting that they may be found here (Liscombe et al. 2005). Roots - presumably those of the seedlings and young plants - apparently do not have any secondary thickening (Blanc 1986).

For some discussion of infloresecence morphology, see Doria et al. (2012). The perianth of Hedyosmum has unique, schizogenous apertures/windows (Doria et al. 2012 and references). Crane et al. (1989), Crepet and Nixon (1997), Eklund et al. (1997), Eklund (1999), and others discuss the nature of the androecium in the family, a matter over which there has been considerable controversy. In Chloranthus it has been suggested that the androecium is lobed, with 2 or 4 dithecal stamens(!!?), and that staminate flowers of Hedyosmum have hundreds of anthers, however, here as elsewhere staminate flowers seem to have but a single dithecal stamen (Kong et al. 2002, and references). Doria et al. (2012) illustrate a superior gynoecium in Hedyosmum. The stylulus is filled with secretion. Endress and Igersheim (1997) describe the stigma as being wet (c.f. Todzia 1988). The ovule in Chloranthus is not quite straight ("subatropous" - Yamada et al. 2001a). For variation in micropyle type, see Heo and Tobe (1995). Johri et al. (1992) noted that the endosperm stores oil, but there may also be starch. The cotyledonary nodes has split laterals (Bailey 1956).

For general information, see Swamy (1953), Todzia (1988, 1993) and Eklund (1999), for chemistry, see Hegnauer (1964, 1989), embryology, see Vijayaraghavan (1964), young plants, see Blanc (1986), general vegetative anaomy, see Metcalfe (1987), for wood anatomy, see Carlquist (1992a), and for floral development, see Endress (1987b) and G. S. Li et al. (2005).

Phylogeny. Within Chloranthaceae, morphological analyses, including details of wood anatomy, suggested the genus pairs [Ascarina + Hedyosmum], mainly woody, plant monoecious to dioecious, and [Chloranthus + Sarcandra], herbaceous to semi-shrubby, flowers perfect. In molecular work (Qiu et al. 1999), on the other hand, the relationships [Hedyosmum [Ascarina [Chloranthus + Sarcandra]]] were found. Although there was strong support, the sampling was rather minimal, but the same set of relationships were confirmed by Zhang and Renner (2003b) and Zhang et al. (2011), both with a much improved sampling. They have also been found in subsequent morphological analyses with constrained outgroups (Doyle et al. 2003; Eklund et al. 2004).

Synonymy: Hedyosmaceae Caruel