LIGNOPHYTA

Plant a shrub or tree; true roots +, origin endogeneous, root cap +, apex multicellular; endodermis +; shoot apical meristem multicellular; lateral meristems +, cork cambium producing cork abaxially, vascular cambium producing phloem abaxially and xylem adaxially; lamina with mean venation density 1.8 mm/mm² (to 5 mm/mm²).

EXTANT SEED PLANTS/SPERMATOPHYTA

Plant woody, evergreen; nicotinic acid metabolised to trigonelline, (cyanogenesis via tyrosine pathway); primary cell walls rich in xyloglucans and/or glucomannans, 25-30% pectin [Type I walls]; lignins derived from (some) sinapyl and particularly coniferyl alcohols, thus containing p-hydroxyphenyl and guaiacyl lignin units, so no Maüle reaction; root xylem exarch, cork cambium deep seated; arbuscular mycorrhizae +; shoot apical meristem interface specific plasmodesmatal network; stem with vascular tissue around central pith [eustele], vascular bundles with interfascicular tissue, ectophloic, endodermis 0, xylem endarch; wood homoxylous, tracheids and rays alone, tracheid/tracheid pits circular, bordered; mature sieve tube/cell lacking functioning nucleus, sieve tube plastids with starch grains; phloem fibres +; stem cork cambium superficial; branches exogenous; leaves with single trace from vascular sympodium ["nodes 1:1"]; vascular bundles collateral [stem: phloem external; leaf: phloem abaxial]; stomata morphology?, pore opening controlled by abscisic acid; leaves with petiole and lamina, spiral, development basipetal, blade simple; axillary buds +, not associated with all leaves; prophylls two, lateral; plant heterosporous, sporangia borne on sporophylls; microsporophylls aggregated in indeterminate cones/strobili; true pollen +, grains mono[ana]sulcate, exine and intine homogeneous; ovules unitegmic, parietal tissue 2+ cells across, megaspore tetrad tetrahedral, only one megaspore develops, megasporangium indehiscent; male gametophyte development first endo- then exosporic, tube developing from distal end of grain, to ca 2 mm from receptive surface to egg, gametes two, developing after pollination, with cell walls, flagellae numerous; ovules increasing considerably in size between pollination and fertilization, female gametophyte endosporic, initially syncytial, walls then surrounding individual nuclei; seeds "large" [ca 8 mm³], but not much bigger than ovule, with morphological dormancy; embryo cellular ab initio, endoscopic, plane of first cleavage of zygote transverse, suspensor +, short-minute, embryo straight, shoot and root at opposite ends [allorrhizic], white, cotyledons 2; plastid transmission maternal; ycf2 gene in inverted repeat, two copies of LEAFY gene, PHY gene duplications [three - [BP [A/N + C/O]] - copies], nrDNA with 5.8S and 5S rDNA in separate clusters; mitochondrial nad1 intron 2 and coxIIi3 intron and trans-spliced introns present.

MAGNOLIOPHYTA

Lignans, O-methyl flavonols, dihydroflavonols, triterpenoid oleanane, non-hydrolysable tannins, quercetin and/or kaempferol +, apigenin and/or luteolin scattered, [cyanogenesis in ANITA grade?], S [syringyl] lignin units common, positive Maüle reaction [syringyl:guaiacyl ratio more than 2-2.5:1], and hemicelluloses as xyloglucans; root apical meristem intermediate-open; root vascular tissue oligarch [di- to pentarch], lateral roots arise opposite or immediately to the side of [when diarch] xylem poles; origin of epidermis with no clear pattern [probably from inner layer of root cap], trichoblasts [differentiated root hair-forming cells] 0, exodermis +; shoot apex with tunica-corpus construction, tunica 2-layered; reaction wood ?, associated gelatinous fibres [g-fibres] with innermost layer of secondary cell wall rich in cellulose and poor in lignin; starch grains simple; primary cell wall mostly with pectic polysaccharides, poor in mannans; tracheid:tracheid [end wall] plates with scalariform pitting, wood parenchyma +; sieve tubes enucleate, sieve plate with pores (0.1-)0.5-10< µm across, cytoplasm with P-proteins, cytoplasm not occluding pores of sieve plate, companion cell and sieve tube from same mother cell; sugar transport in phloem passive; nodes unilacunar [1:?]; stomata brachyparacytic [ends of subsidiary cells level with ends of pore], outer stomatal ledges producing vestibule; lamina formed from the primordial leaf apex, margins toothed, development of venation acropetal, secondary veins pinnate, overall growth ± diffuse, venation hierarchical, fine venation reticulate, veins (1.7-)4.1(-5.7) mm/mm², endings free; most/all leaves with axillary buds; flowers perfect, pedicellate, ± haplomorphic, parts spiral [esp. the A], free, numbers unstable, development in general centripetal; P not sharply differentiated, with a single trace, outer members not enclosing the rest of the bud, often smaller than inner members; A many, filament not sharply distinguished from anther, stout, broad, with a single trace, anther introrse, tetrasporangiate, sporangia in two groups of two [dithecal], ± embedded in the filament, with at least outer secondary parietal cells dividing, each theca dehiscing longitudinally, endothecium +, endothecial cells elongated at right angles to long axis of anther; tapetum glandular, cells binucleate; microspore mother cells in a block, microsporogenesis successive, walls developing by centripetal furrowing; pollen subspherical, tectum continuous or microperforate, ektexine columellar, endexine thin, compact, lamellate only in the apertural regions; nectary 0; G superior, free, several, ascidiate, with postgenital occlusion by secretion, stylulus short, hollow, cavity not lined by distinct epidermal layer, stigma ± decurrent, dry [not secretory]; ovules few [?1]/carpel, marginal, anatropous, bitegmic, micropyle endostomal, outer integument 2-3 cells across, often largely subdermal in origin, inner integument 2-3 cells across, often dermal in origin, parietal tissue 1-3 cells across [crassinucellate], nucellar cap?; megasporocyte single, hypodermal, megaspore tetrad linear, functional megaspore chalazal, lacking sporopollenin and cuticle; female gametophyte four-celled [one module, nucleus of egg cell sister to one of the polar nuclei]; ovule not increasing in size between pollination and fertilization; pollen binucleate at dispersal, male gametophyte trinucleate, germinating in less than 3 hours, pollination siphonogamous, tube elongated, growing between cells, growth rate 20-20,000 µm/hour, outer wall pectic, inner wall callose, with callose plugs, penetration of ovules via micropyle [porogamous], whole process takes ca 18 hours, distance to first ovule 1.1-2.1 mm; male gametes lacking cell walls, flagellae 0, double fertilization +, ovules aborting unless fertilized; P deciduous in fruit; seed exotestal, becoming much larger than ovule at time of fertilization; endosperm diploid, cellular [micropylar and chalazal domains develop differently, first division oblique, micropylar end initially with a single large cell, divisions uniseriate, chalazal cell smaller, divisions in several planes], copious, oily and/or proteinaceous; embryogenesis cellular; germination hypogeal, seedlings/young plants sympodial; Arabidopsis-type telomeres [(TTTAGGG)_n]; whole genome duplication, ndhB gene 21 codons enlarged at the 5' end, single copy of LEAFY and RPB2 gene, knox genes extensively duplicated [A1-A4], AP1/FUL gene, paleo AP3 and PI genes [paralogous B-class genes] +, with "DEAER" motif, SEP3/LOFSEP and three copies of the PHY gene, [PHYB [PHYA + PHYC]].

[NYMPHAEALES [AUSTROBAILEYALES [[CHLORANTHALES + MAGNOLIIDS] [MONOCOTS [CERATOPHYLLALES + EUDICOTS]]]]]: vessels +, elements with elongated scalariform perforation plates; wood fibres +; axial parenchyma diffuse or diffuse-in-aggregates; pollen monosulcate [anasulcate], tectum reticulate-perforate [here?]; ?genome duplication; "DEAER" motif in AP3 and PI genes lost, gaps in these genes.

[AUSTROBAILEYALES [[CHLORANTHALES + MAGNOLIIDS] [MONOCOTS [CERATOPHYLLALES + EUDICOTS]]]]: essential oils in specialized cells [lamina and P ± pellucid-punctate]; tension wood 0; tectum reticulate; anther wall with outer secondary parietal cell layer dividing; carpels plicate; nucellar cap + [character lost where in eudicots?]; 12BP [4 amino acids] deletion in P1 gene.

[[CHLORANTHALES + MAGNOLIIDS] [MONOCOTS [CERATOPHYLLALES + EUDICOTS]]] / MESANGIOSPERMAE: benzylisoquinoline alkaloids +; polyacetate derived anthraquinones + [?level]; outer epidermal walls of root elongation zone with cellulose fibrils oriented transverse to root axis; P more or less whorled, 3-merous [possible positiion]; embryo sac bipolar, 8 nucleate, antipodal cells persisting; endosperm triploid; ?germination.

[MONOCOTS [CERATOPHYLLALES + EUDICOTS]]: (veins in lamina often 7-17mm/mm² or more [mean for eudicots 8.0]); (stamens opposite [two whorls of] P); (pollen tube growth fast).

[CERATOPHYLLALES + EUDICOTS]: ethereal oils 0.

EUDICOTS: myricetin, delphinidin scattered, asarone 0 [unknown in some groups, + in some asterids]; root epidermis derived from root cap [?Buxaceae, etc.]; nodes 3:3; stomata anomocytic; flowers (dimerous), cyclic; K/outer P members with three traces, "C" with a single trace; A few, (polyandry widespread, initial primordia 5, 10, or ring, ± centrifugal), filaments fairly slender, anthers basifixed; microsporogenesis simultaneous, pollen tricolpate, apertures in pairs at six points of the young tetrad [Fischer's rule], cleavage centripetal, wall with endexine; G with complete postgenital fusion, stylulus/style solid [?here]; seed coat?

[PROTEALES [TROCHODENDRALES [BUXALES + CORE EUDICOTS]]]: (axial/receptacular nectary +).

[TROCHODENDRALES [BUXALES + CORE EUDICOTS]]: benzylisoquinoline alkaloids 0; euAP3 + TM6 genes [duplication of paleoAP3 gene: B class], mitochondrial rps2 gene lost.

[BUXALES + CORE EUDICOTS]: ?

CORE EUDICOTS / GUNNERIDAE: (ellagic and gallic acids +); leaf margins serrate; compitum + [one place]; micropyle?; palaeohexaploidy [gamma triplication], PI-dB motif +, small deletion in the 18S ribosomal DNA common.

[ROSIDS ET AL. + ASTERIDS ET AL.] / PENTAPETALAE: root apical meristem closed; (cyanogenesis also via [iso]leucine, valine and phenylalanine pathways); flowers rather stereotyped: 5-merous, parts whorled; P = calyx + corolla, the calyx enclosing the flower in bud, sepals with three or more traces, petals with a single trace; stamens = 2x K/C, in two whorls developing internally/adaxially to the corolla whorl and successively alternating, (numerous, but then usually fasciculate and/or centrifugal); pollen tricolporate; G [5], G [3] also common, when [G 2], carpels superposed, compitum +, placentation axile, style +, stigma not decurrent; endosperm nuclear; fruit dry, dehiscent, loculicidal [when a capsule]; RNase-based gametophytic incompatibility system present; floral nectaries with CRABSCLAW expression.

[SANTALALES [BERBERIDOPSIDALES [CARYOPHYLLALES + ASTERIDS]]] / ASTERIDS ET AL. / SUPERASTERIDS : ?

[BERBERIDOPSIDALES [CARYOPHYLLALES + ASTERIDS]]: ?

[CARYOPHYLLALES + ASTERIDS]: seed exotestal; embryo long.

ASTERIDS / Sympetalae redux? / ASTERIDAE / ASTERANAE Takhtajan: nicotinic acid metabolised to its arabinosides; (iridoids +); tension wood decidedly uncommon; C enclosing A and G in bud, (connate, if evident only early in development and then petals often appearing to be free); anthers dorsifixed?; (nectary gynoecial); style +, long; ovules unitegmic, integument thick, endothelium +, nucellar epidermis does not persist; exotestal cells lignified, esp. on anticlinal and/or inner periclinal walls; endosperm cellular.

[ERICALES [ASTERID I + ASTERID II]]: (ovules lacking parietal tissue) [tenuinucellate].

[ASTERID I + ASTERID II] / CORE ASTERIDS: ellagic acid 0, non-hydrolysable tannins not common; sugar transport in phloem active; inflorescence basically cymose; A = and opposite sepals or P, (numerous, usu. associated with increased numbers of C or G); (pollen with orbicules); style short[?]; duplication of the PI gene.

Evolution. Divergence & Distribution. Estimates of the age of diversification within core asterids ranges from (109-)100, 93(-85) m.y. (see Bell et al. 2010 for details).

ASTERID I / LAMIIDAE: G [2], superposed; loss of introns 18-23 in d copy of RPB2 gene.

[BORAGINACEAE + VAHLIACEAE + GENTIANALES + LAMIALES + SOLANALES]: (8-ring deoxyflavonols +); vessel elements with simple perforation plates; C forming a distinct tube, initiation late [sampling!]; A epipetalous; [vascularized] nectary at base of G; style long.

[LAMIALES + SOLANALES]: iridoids, myricetin, non-hydrolysable tannins usu. 0; nodes 1:1; K connate; anther sacs with placentoids; endothelium +.

Evolution. Divergence & Distribution. Endress (2011a) suggested that a key innovation for a clade [Lamiales + Solanales] might be anthers with a pollen sac placentoid.

Chemistry, Morphology, etc. Information on placentoid distribution is needed for Plocospermataceae, etc. (see also Jensen 1992).

LAMIALES Bromhead  Main Tree, Synapomorphies.

Cornoside, verbascosides [caffeoyl phenylethanoid glucosides (CPGs), caffeic acid esters, = acteosides], methyl- and oxygenated flavones +; eglandular hairs multicellular; leaves opposite; endosperm with micropylar haustorium; fruit a septicidal capsule, K persistent; cotyledons incumbent; protein bodies in nuclei; mitochondrial coxII.i3 intron 0. - 24 families, 1059 genera, 23810 species.

Note: Possible apomorphies are now being added throughout the site; they are in bold. However, the actual level at which many of these features, particularly the more cryptic ones, should be assigned is unclear. This is because there is very considerable homoplasy, with variation within and between clades, for most characters. Furthermore, the basic information for all too many characters is very incomplete, often coming from taxa well embedded in the clade of interest and so making the position of any putative apomorphy uncertain. Then there is the not-so-trivial issue of how ancestral states are reconstructed...

Evolution. Divergence & Distribution. Estimates of the age of Lamiales range from ca 97 to ca 74 m.y.a. (Bremer et al. 2004; Wikström et al. 2001 respectively); Janssens et al. (2009) date stem group Lamiales to 104±8.2 m.y.a. and the crown group to 95±11.9 m.y.. Magallón and Castillo (2009) offer estimates of ca 80 and 63 m.y. for both relaxed and constrained penalized likelihood datings for stem and crown group Lamiales respectively - but note topology. However, Martínez-Millán (2010), using a rather scanty fossil record, suggested an Oligocene age for diversification within Lamiales - this would be the herbaceous Lamiales, since fossil Oleaceae are known from the Eocene.

Lamiales contain ca 12.3% eudicot diversity. Most of this diversity is concentrated in families whose members are herbaceous to shrubby and have rather large, monosymmetric flowers and many small seeds.

For a useful general discussion, including suggestions of apomorphies for some clades, see Soltis et al. (2005b); Kadereit (2004) provided a summary of the order and its evolution. Endress (2011a) suggested that a key innovation somewhere in Lamiales was tenuinucellate ovules. Monosymmetry is unlikely to be plesiomorphic in the order (c.f. Ronse de Craene 2010 and references).

Confirmation of the phylogenetic positions of Carlemanniaceae, placed sister to Oleaceae, and of Plocospermataceae, as well as studies of their anatomy, chemistry, floral development, etc., and also resolution of relationships within Oleaceae, are important for understanding the evolution of the chemistry and floral morphology in particular of Lamiales (c.f. Endress 2001). If Carlemanniaceae are in this general part of the tree, as seems likely, one would expect them to lack iridoids - at least, to lack route II decarboxylated iridoids - and to have only a single (micropylar) endosperm haustorium.

Taxa with 4-merous or predominantly 4-merous flowers are common in the basal pectinations of the Lamiales tree (see also Mayr & Weber 2006). Note that Carlemanniaceae have both 4- and 5-merous flowers and that the lip of the apparently 4-merous flowers of Calceolariaceae may represent two completely connate members of the petal whorl (Mayr & Weber 2006); Calceolariaceae, on the other hand, have 4-merous flowers, although some have interpreted their flowers as being 5-merous (Mayr & Weber 2006). Floral evolution in "basal" Lamiales is obviously not simple, and where changes in floral meristicity are to be placed on the tree is unclear.

Bacterial/Fungal Associations. Both parasitic and insectivorous members of Lamiales are largely non-mycorrhizal (Brundrett 2004 and references).

Chemistry, Morphology, etc. A great deal of work on characterising iridoids and understanding their distribution in Lamiales has been carried out by S. R. Jensen and collaborators. The occurrence of cornosides and iridoids in Lamiales are largely mutually exclusive, except in Martynia louisiana (Jensen 1992, 2000a, 2000b). Verbascoside, a disaccharide derivative of the hydroxycinnamic acid, caffeic acid (= caffeoyl phenylethanoid glycoside), is common. It and trisaccharide derivatives (over 325 structures altogether - S. R. Jensen, pers. comm.) are phenylpropanoid glycosides, a class of compounds usually with a central glucose, a C₆C₂ unit, commonly dihydroxyphenyl-ß-ethanol, and a C₆C₃ unit, hydroxycinnamic acid (Mølgaard & Ravn 1988). Such compounds are very rarely found elsewhere (an exception is Cassinopsis - see Icacinaceae s.l.: Cometa et al. 1993).

Nodal anatomy needs study. Neubauer (e.g. 1977, 1978) suggested that the single trace often divided immediately into three or more, and this nodal type is indeed common in the order. Bailey (1956) recorded 2:2 nodes in Lamiaceae, and other nodal morphologies occur, e.g. in Gesneriaceae, Bignoniaceae, etc. Intermediary cells with distinctive plasmodesmata associated with the ultimate leaf veins may be plesiomorphic in Lamiales; their presence is linked with the transport of raffinose and stachyose, oligosaccharides commonly found in phloem exudate in the order (Turgeon et al. 2001; Turgeon 2010a). Leaf teeth have a glandular apex, with one accessory vein proceeding into the tooth, the other going above it.

Taxa with trinucleate pollen grains are scattered throughout the order. For integument thickness, for which I have no generally comparable information but which may be of systematic importance, see also Hjertsen (1997) and Fischer (2004b). A chalazal hypostase is common - e.g. Buddleja, some "scrophs" - but the level of this feature is unknown. Oleaceae seem to have a rather diferent embryo development from that of other Lamiales studied (Yamazaki 1974). A long, narrow suspensor may be common in Lamiales (di Fulvio 1979; Maldonado de Magnano 1987), but I do not know the general distribution of this character - it is certainly not found in Loganiaceae. The seed is ruminate in various ways (Hartl 1959, 1965-1974). Seed pedestals, developed from the funicle and/or placenta, are scattered, being known from e.g. Tetrachondraceae, Calceolariaceae, Orobanchaceae and Paulowniaceae (Rebernig & Weber 2007).

For chemistry, see Harborne and Williams (1971: scutellarein, etc.), Zindler-Frank (1978: oxalate accumulation), Young and Siegler (1981: anthraquinones), Mølgaard and Ravn (1988: caffeoyl esters), Tomás Barberán et al. (1988: flavone glycosides), Scogin (1992: acteoside), Jensen (1992), and Grayer et al. (1999: general). For proteinaceous nuclear inclusions, see Bigazzi (1984, 1989a, 1989b, 1993, 1995) and Speta (1977, 1979). Information on a number of families recognised here is to be found under Scrophulariaceae in the old sense - see e.g. Schmid (1906: ovules), Hartl (1956: placentation), Hartl (1965-1974: general), and Fischer (2004b), while Rahn (1996) also includes useful information.

Phylogeny. Oxelman et al. (1999a), Mueller et al. (2001) and Hilu et al. (2001) among others suggested that Plocospermataceae are sister to other Lamiales. Savolainen et al. (2000b, rbcL data alone; see also H.-L. Lee et al. 2007, Plocospermataceae not included) placed Carlemannia sister to Oleaceae (only 1 species in analysis) with moderate support, while Bremer et al. (2001) found that the two genera formed a sister group that was part of a trichotomy at the base of Lamiales; Oleaceae (Ligustrum only) and [all other Lamiales] completed the trichotomy, and Plocospermataceae again were not included. A sister relationship [Carlemanniaceae + Oleaceae] is also supported by Yang et al. (2007: 1.0 p.p., Plocosperma included, but sampling still very poor), and that seems the best place to put the family. The peltate, glandular hairs with unicellular stalks and flowers with two stamens (their position is not entirely certain) also suggest Lamiales, and anatomical features (see below) are consistent with this relationship.

The position of Hydrostachys within the asterids has not been easy to determine. Here it is included in Cornales, and there is a discussion of its relationships there; Burleigh et al. (2009) suggested that it is a member of Lamiales, with which its morphology is in general agreement. If it should end up in Lamiales, it is likely to be towards the basal part of the tree.

S. Andersson (2006, two genes, sampling poor) found 75% jacknife support for the clade [Calceolariaceae + Gesneriaceae], and 100% support for that clade as sister to remaining Lamiales, although Mayr and Weber (2006) did not think that the two families were particularly near each other. However, chemistry and morphology also suggest the relationship is close, and also that these families are basal to the remaining Lamiales. Qiu et al. (2010) and Soltis et al. (2011) suggest that Peltanthera may fall outide the [Calceolariaceae + Gesneriaceae] clade (but see Perret et al. 2012, also below).

Relationships in the "Scrophulariaceae"-Acanthaceae-Bignoniaceae-Lamiaceae area have been uncertain for some time, see e.g. Wagstaff and Olmstead (1997), Olmstead et al. (2001), and Xia et al. (2009). B. Bremer et al. (2002) analysed variation in three coding and three non-coding regions of the chloroplast genome; their sampling was sketchy, so the support for some family groupings is difficult to evaluate; Freeman and Scogin (1999) focussed on the old Scrophulariaceae, but the pattern of relationships they found was unclear. A tree in Müller et al. (2004) suggested that at least a partial resolution of relationships was in sight, although sampling was again poor (this study focused on Lentibulariaceae); the three families known or suspected to be carnivorous (Byblidaceae, Lentibulariaceae and Martyniaceae) were not immediately related. Rahmanzadeh et al. (2004), Albach et al. (2005) and Oxelman et al. (2005) began to clarify the contents of the separate clades that used to be subsumed in Scrophulariceae s. l. (see also Tank et al. 2006 for a summary). Thomandersia, from tropical Africa, previously usually included in Acanthaceae, eappeared to go near Schlegeliaceae, however, support for this association was weak (Wortley et al. 2005a and especially 2007a).

The relationships of Verbenaceae s. str. and Lamiaceae remained unclear (e.g. Olmstead et al. 2001, only one member of each sampled: see Wagstaff & Olmstead 1997 and Cantino 2004 for more information). However, Petraea (Verbenaceae) was sister to Bignoniaceae in some early molecular phylogenies (Wagstaff & Olmstead 1997), similarly, Nie et al. (2006) linked Verbenaceae with Bignoniaceae and Paulowniaceae with Phrymaceae. Amyloid is found in both Pedaliaceae and Acanthaceae, a family that is sometimes weakly associated with Pedaliaceae in molecular analyses (Soltis et al. 2005b and references). Both Martyniaceae and Pedaliaceae, probably not immediately related, have 10-hydroxylated carboxylic iridoids. Byblidaceae may be sister to Lentibulariaceae (e.g. Albert et al. 1992), although Müller et al. (2004) found no association between the two, nor of either with any Lamiales with viscid indumentum like that of Martyniaceae and Pedaliaceae, a feature which could perhaps be considered to be "precursory" to insectivory. On the other hand, Müller et al. (2004) found a weak association of Lentibulariaceae and Bignoniaceae. Soltis et al. (2007a) found few strongly supported relationships in the bulk of the order; Wortley et al. (2005b), who had sequenced over 4600 bp, estimated that at least 10000 bp more would need to be added to resolve relationships within the clade.

Refulio-Rodriguez and Olmstead (2008) suggested that substantial progress in disentangling relationships around Lamiacae-Verbenaceae and Scrophulariaceae s.l. might be on the horizon (see also Xia et al. 2009). Although focusing on Triaenophora (ex "scroph", now Orobanchaceae s.l.), the relationships that Albach et al. (2009) found are broadly consistent with those suggested by others. Indeed, the recent results of Schäferhoff et al. (2010), followed here, are consistent with the outline suggested by Refulio-Rodriguez and Olmstead (2008). The bulk of the free-living Scrophulariaceae are paraphyletic at the base of the iridoid-containing clade of Lamiales, Lamiaceae and Verbenaceae are quite separated, the insectivorous and putatively insectivorous clades in Lamiales are all unrelated, etc. (Schäferhoff et al. 2010); the recent discoveries of Pereira et al. (2012) have added another phylogenetically isolated carnivorous clade. Albach et al. (2009) cast doubt on the monophyly of Phrymaceae (see also Schäferhoff et al. 2010). Taxon limits in thein this area have been narrowly drawn here, and the tree still lacks resolution around the Bignoniaceae-Verbenaceae area. As might be anticipated, there is little morphological support for internal nodes in much of Lamiales and even for some of the families.

Recent findings by McDade et al. (2012) apparently contradict part of the tree found by Schäferhoff et al. (2010). In particular, Byblidaceae, Stilbaceae and, surprisingly, Thomandersiaceae all occur on the tree between Plantaginaceae and Scrophulariaceae (support is strong), and Linderniaceae are sister to Scrophulariaceae (support is weak). On the other hand, Perret et al. (2013) found relationships more similar to those in Schäferhoff et al. (2010), although the two carnivorous clades Byblidaceae and Lentibulariaceae were sister taxa, and .

The pattern of duplication of the FLO=LFY and DEF=AP3 genes within Lamiales is largely ongruent with the relationships discussed above; duplication occurred in the representatives of Phrymaceae, Verbenaceae, Paulowniaceae and Orobanchaceae examined, but not in those of Plantaginaceae or Oleaceae (Aagard et al. 2005). It has been suggested that families such as Orobanchaceae, Lamiaceae and Acanthaceae form a clade with strongly monosymmetric flowers that mostly lack a staminode (Endress 2001b), not obviously consistent with these relationships.

Classification. R. Olmstead (pers. comm.) is compiling a synoptical classification of Lamiales from which some of the numbers of taxa included in the families below are taken. The limits of families like Scrophulariaceae have long been problematic (Thieret 1967 for a summary), but Olmstead (2002) provided a readable account of changes in our ideas of relationships in the Scrophulariaceae s.l. in particular.

Despite the lack of morphological support for some of the families, little is to be gained and more lost if their limits are much expanded.

Includes Acanthaceae, Bignoniaceae, Byblidaceae, Calceolariaceae, Carlemanniaceae, Gesneriaceae, Lamiaceae, Lentibulariaceae, Linderniaceae, Martyniaceae, Mazaceae, Oleaceae, Orobanchaceae, Paulowniaceae, Pedaliaceae, Peltanthera, Phrymaceae, Plantaginaceae, Plocospermataceae, Schlegeliaceae, Scrophulariaceae, Stilbaceae, Tetrachondraceae, Thomandersiaceae, Verbenaceae.

Synonymy: Acanthales Berchtold & J. Presl, Antirrhinales Döll, Aragoales D. Don [?status], Bignoniales Berchtold & J. Presl, Byblidales Reveal, Callitrichales Link, Carlemanniales Doweld, Fraxinales Berchtold & J. Presl, Gesneriales Berchtold & J. Presl, Globulariales Dumortier, Hippuridales Link, Jasminales Berchtold & J. Presl, Lentibulariales Berchtold & J. Presl, Ligustrales Bischof, Myoporales Berchtold & J. Presl, Oleales Berchtold & J. Presl, Orobanchales Berchtold & J. Presl, Pedaliales Berchtold & J. Presl, Pinguiculales Dumortier, Plantaginales Berchtold & J. Presl, Rhinanthales Dumortier, Scrophulariales Lindley, Selaginales Martius, Stilbales Martius, Utriculariales Döll, Verbascales Döll, Verbenales Berchtold & J. Presl, Viticales Link {?status]

PLOCOSPERMATACEAE Hutchinson   Back to Lamiales

Shrubs or trees; cork?; vessels in radial multiples; large groups of fibres in outer cortex at nodal region; petiole bundle annular; styloids +; hairs unicellular, calcified and/or with cystoliths, also bicellular, club-shaped, glandular; cuticle wax crystalloids 0; petiole articulated near base; plant cryptically dioecious; inflorescences axillary, cymose; bracteoles 0; flowers 5-6-merous; staminate flowers: anthers extrorse, versatile, with largely separate thecae; nectary 0; pistillode +; carpellate flower: staminodes +; nectary +; placentation parietal, stylar fusion postgenital, style divided twice, stigmas not expanded; ovules 2/carpel; seed with tuft of hairs at chalazal end, hairs multicellular; coat ?; endosperm ?development, slight; n = ?; protein bodies in nucleus?

1[list]/1: Plocosperma buxifolia. Central America (map: from Leeuwenberg 1967).

• Plocospermataceae are shrubby plants that may be recognised by their rather small, opposite leaves that are articulated near the base of the petiole, and their quite large, polysymmetric, campanulate-rotate flowers with versatile, extrorse anthers and a twice-divided style. The fruit is a few-seeded capsule and the seeds have a tuft of hairs at one end.

Chemistry, Morphology, etc. Plocospermataceae are poorly known. Jensen (1992) recorded verbascosides and cornoside from Plocosperma, but not iridoids. The apparent absence of nectaries in the staminate flowers should be confirmed. For ovule position, see (Leeuwenberg 1967).

See D'Arcy and Keating (1973: as Lithophytum, esp. anatomy), Jensen (1992: chemistry), M. Endress et al. (1996: general, and relationships), and Struwe and Jensen (2004: general) for information.

Previous Relationships. Plocospermataceae were included in Gentianales by Takhtajan (1997), probably because Plocosperma had long been associated with Loganiaceae. Cronquist (1981) included the genus in his Apocynaceae, probably because of the hairs on its seeds.

[[Carlemanniaceae + Oleaceae] [Tetrachondraceae [[Peltanthera, [Calceolariaceae + Gesneriaceae]] [Plantaginaceae [Scrophulariaceae [Byblidaceae, Linderniaceae, [Stilbaceae [[Lamiaceae [Mazaceae [Phrymaceae [Paulowniaceae + Orobanchaceae]]]] [Thomandersiaceae, Verbenaceae, Pedaliaceae, [Schlegeliaceae + Martyniaceae], Bignoniaceae, Acanthaceae, Lentibulariaceae]]]]]]]]]: cells in heads of glandular hairs with vertical walls only; flowers 4-merous [?: reverses to 5-merous....].

Chemistry, Morphology, etc. Note that the arrangement of the sepals (and petals) is orthogonal in Oleaceae and Calceolariaceae, while that of Tetrachondraceae (and of 4-merous Veronica) is diagonal (Mayr & Weber 2006).

[Carlemanniaceae + Oleaceae]: C valvate; A 2; pollen tricolpate; stigma ± clavate; exotestal cells ± palisade, endothelium persistent.

CARLEMANNIACEAE Airy Shaw   Back to Lamiales

Perennial herbs or shrubs; chemistry?; vessel elements with simple perforations; pericyclic fibers few; nodes?; no cuticle waxes; lamina margins toothed; inflorescences terminal and axillary; flowers weakly obliquely monosymmetric, 4- or 5-merous, heterostylous [Silvianthus]; K members unequal or not, ± linear, open?, C induplicate-valvate; anthers connivent and surrounding the style, introrse, thecae ?; ovary inferior, nectary on top; fruit fleshy-capsular, loculicidal or 5-valved [valves correspond to calyx segments, and the fruit opens widely, exposing the placenta], K persistent; exotestal cells with radial walls thickened, interior cells unthickened, endothelium persistent [Silvianthus], or polygonal, all walls thickened [Carlemannia]; endosperm +, ruminate [Silvianthus], embryo small; n = 15, 19; protein bodies in nucleus?

2[list]/5. Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, S. China, Sumatra (map: somewhat hypothetical).

• Carlemanniaceae can be recognised by their opposite, serrate leaves joined by a line across the stem; more or less swollen nodes; weakly monosymmetric four or five-merous flowers with only two stamens and inferior, bicarpellate ovary; and more or less fleshy but dehiscent fruit.

Chemistry, Morphology, etc. Carlemanniaceae are embryologically and chemically largely unknown.

Some information is taken from Tange (1999); Thiv (2004) provides a general account, and Yang et al. (2007) information on chromosome numbers, etc.

Previous Relationships. Carlemanniaceae have usually been associated with Caprifoliaceae or Rubiaceae in the past. However, characters such as superficial cork, two stamens with connivent anthers and two carpels each with many ovules would remove Carlemanniaceae from Caprifoliaceae, and the toothed, exstipulate leaves, 2 stamens, anomocytic stomata, and absence of raphides from Rubiaceae (Solereder 1893; Airy Shaw 1965). Carlemanniaceae were included in Caprifoliaceae by Cronquist (1981) and in Rubiales by Takhtajan (1997).

OLEACEAE Hoffmannsegg & Link, nom. cons.   Back to Lamiales

Woody; carboxycyclic iridoids, myricetin, orobanchin, mannitol +; wood with minute calcium oxalate crystals; (vessel elements with scalariform perforation plates); fibre tracheids +; libriform fibres 0; foliar crystals of various types, inc. styloids and raphides (0; druses); petiole bundle arcuate; sclereids + (0); hairs (peltate), secretory; cuticle deeply furrowed (waxes ribbons, platelets); branching from previous innovation; leaf margins entire to toothed, (secondary veins palmate); (plant dioecious); inflorescence with terminal flower, ± cymose branches; flowers 4-merous; K valvate, initiation orthogonal; anther thecae ± back-to-back; pollen (trinucleate); (style short), stigma dry; ovules apical, (hemitropous), epitropous or apotropous, integument ca 7 cells across, (postament +); testa often vascularized, exotesta moderately and evenly thickened, (endotesta fibrous; endothelium ?not persistent); endosperm +/0; protein bodies in nuclear crystalline-globular; 9 bp deletion in ndhF.

24[list]/615 - five tribes below. More or less worldwide, especially East Asia (map: from Meusel et al. 1975; Australia's Flora Online xii.2012).

1. Fontanesieae L. Johnson

Secoiridoids [secologanoside] +; pits ± vestured; petiole bundle annular; C free, imbricate; ovule 1/carpel; fruit a samara; n = 13.

1/2. Sicily, W. Asia, China.

2. Forsythieae L. Johnson

Pith chambered; ovules 1-several/carpel; fruit a samara or capsule; n = 14.

2/8. S.E. Europe, East Asia.

3. Myxopyreae Boerlage

Myxopyroside iridoid pathway +; inverted cortical bundles in corners of angled stem (Dimetra not); (K initiation diagonal, C contorted, early tube formation - Nyctanthes); (G collateral); placentation ± basal; ovules 1(-3)/carpel, integument to 20 cells across [Nyctanthes]; (megaspore mother cells several, embryo sac bisporic, 8-nucleate [Allium type]); fruit a berry or schizocarp; n = 11, 12.

3 (Myxopyrum, Dimetra, Nyctanthes)/7. Indo-Malesia.

Synonymy: Nyctanthaceae J. Agardh

[Jasmineae + Oleeae]: secoirioidoids [oleoside] +; leaves odd-pinnate to simple; ovules 2(-4)/carpel; fruit fleshy.

4. Jasmineae Lamarck & Candolle

K and C to 14 or more, first 4 K initiation diagonal, C quincuncial-imbricate, tube formation early; endothelium 0; (megaspore mother cells several, several elongated embryo sacs developing); fruit bilobed, berry or circumscissile capsule; seed coat multilayered, mesotesta with wholly thickened or band-thickened anticlinal walls; n = 11-13; 21kb chloroplast inversion.

1/225-450 (Jasminum: inc. Menodora). Tropical to warm temperate Old World, some in America. [Photo - Flower]

Synonymy: Bolivaraceae Grisebach, Jasminaceae Jussieu

5. Oleeae Dumortier

Flavone glycosides +; vessel elements in multiples; (pits vestured); libriform fibres + (0); fibre tracheids 0 (+); marginal parenchyma +/0; (indumentum of peltate scales); lamina vernation conduplicate [Chionanthus]; K (diagonal), (open), C valvate, (imbricate; free; 0), tube formation late (early - Ligustrinae); (A 4 - e.g. Nestegis); (fruit a samara); n = (20) 23.

17/415: Chionanthus (60-120), Fraxinus (45-65), Ligustrum (50), Noronhia (85), Olea (33). Tropical and subtropical, inc. New Zealand and Hawaii.

Synonymy: Forestieraceae Meisner, Fraxinaceae Vest, Ligustraceae G. Meyer, Nyctanthaceae J. Agardh, Schreberaceae Schnizlein, Syringaceae Horaninow

• Oleaceae are woody plants that are recognisable by their opposite, exstipulate simple to odd-pinnately compound leaves; the twigs often dry pale and contrast with the dark-drying petioles, there are superposed buds, and the stem is also somewhat swollen at the nodes (note: there is no line across the node, c.f. Gentianales, many other opposite-leaved Lamiales). The usually four-merous, sympetalous polysymmetric flowers with two stamens are also distinctive; even in Jasminum, with 5 or more sepals (and even spiral leaves), there are still only two stamens. The terminal bud quite often aborts.

Evolution. Divergence & Distribution. Samaras of Fraxinus have been reported from Eocene rock some 44 m.y.o. (Call & Dlicher 1992). Much diversification within Oleaceae is Tertiary (Besnard et al. 2009a).

Plant-Animal Interactions. Caterpillars of some Sphinginae are quite common on Oleaceae (and the same genera may also be on Solanaceae: Forbes 1958).

Genes & Genomes. For the reorganization of the platid genome in Jasminum s.l., see H.-L. Lee et al. 2007). The chloroplast gene accD (= ORF512, zpfA) has been lost (Doyle et al. 1995 and references) in at least some Oleaceae.

Chemistry, Morphology, etc. The route I secoiridoids are unlike other route I secoiridoids, e.g. those in Gentianaceae (Jensen 1992). Damtoft et al. (1995) noted that the secoiridoids of Fontanesia (loganic acid, etc., and 5-hydroxylated derivates like swertiamarin) were produced by a somewhat different biosynthetic pathway than the oleoside-type secoiridoids common elsewhere in the family. Forsythia and Abeliophyllum (possibly sister to rest of Oleaceae) have cornosides, and some seem to lack iridoids; these features may be plesiomorphies (but not if Myxopyreae are sister to the rest of the family - see below).

At least some species of Osmanthus have a lignified, torus-bearing, pit membrane (Coleman et al. 2004: Dute et al. 2010b). The diversity of crystal types in the vegetative plant (other than the wood) is very great; druses are uncommon (Lersten & Horner 2008a, 2009a, esp. b). Crystals are often clustered in epidermal cells at the bases of trichomes, an unusual distribution pattern (Lersten & Horner 2009b).

The calyx is sometimes diagonally oriented (Sehr & Weber 2009). There is variation in corolla tube initiation, both early and late initiation being known in the family (Sehr & Weber 2009). Groups of few-celled secretory hairs may form extrafloral nectaries (Zimmermann 1932), while nectar is reported to be secreted from the ovary in Syringa and Ligustrum (Weberling 1989). Osmophores are common and their absence from the anthers may be of systematic interest (Nilson 2000: sampling?); orbicules may be absent (Vinckier & Smets 2002a). There is infrageneric variation in the orientation of the two carpels; however, the two stamens are always borne in the plane of the ovary septum (Eichler 1874). Baillon (1891) illustrates both epitropous and apotropous ovules. The chloroplast gene accD (= ORF512, zpfA) has been lost (Doyle et al. 1995 and references) in at least some Oleaceae.

For more information, see Andersson (1931), Kapil and Vani (1966), and Maheshwari Devi (1975), all embryology, also Baas et al. (1988: wood anatomy), Song and Hog (2012: some petiole anatomy, Naghiloo et al. (2013: inflorescence morphology), Bigazzi (1989a: protein nuclear inclusions), Kiew and Baas (1984) and Rohwer (1994b: both Nyctanthes), Rohwer (1993b, 1996: fruit and seed), Jensen et al. (2002: iridoids), Green (2004: general), and Sehr and Weber (2009) and Dadpour et al. (2011), both floral ontogeny, latter also some inflorescence.

Phylogeny. Wallander and Albert (2000: some morphology also) found that the tribes above had strong support, but there was a basal polytomy. H.-L. Lee et al. (2007), however, found Myxopyreae to be sister to the rest of the family (100% bootstrap support), with Fontanesieae, Forsythieae and [Jasmineae + Oleeae] forming a trichotomy; they emphasized the complex pattern of chloroplast inversions in Jasmineae. Kim and Kim (2011) suggested a quite well supported set of groupings [[Fontanesieae + Jasmineae] [Oleeae + Forsythieae]]; unfortunately, they did not sample other members of the family. The relationships above may well need to be changed.

Franzyk et al. (2001) noted that Myxopyrum and Nyctanthes, both in Myxopyreae, had similar iridoids. Besnard et al. (2009a) and Guo et al. (2011) examined relationships in some Oleeae, while Hong-Wa and Besnard (2013) found considerable geographical signal in the clades they obtained in a study of relationships around Noronhia and other Oleinae - although polyploidy presented a problem in their analysis.

• Nyctanthes has a rough lamina surface, transverse carpels with 1 ascending ovule/carpel, and seeds with the exotesta little developed, the mesotesta persistent, and the endotestal cells tangentially elongated and sclerotised.

Classification. The tribes recognised above are those of Wallander and Albert (2000). Generic limits in Oleeae in particular need much attention; Olea itself, Osmanthus, and Chionanthus are all polyphyletic (Besnard et al. 2009a; Guo et al. 2011). Thus Chionanthus had included Linociera, but this is questionable; Hong-Wa and Besnard (2013) have begun the necessary process of generic realignment.

Previous Relationships. The position of Nyctanthes has been uncertain, and it was often included in Verbenaceae in the old sense; Filonenko et al. (2010) consider the genus to be separate from both families.

[Tetrachondraceae [[Peltanthera, [Calceolariaceae + Gesneriaceae]] [Plantaginaceae [Scrophulariaceae [Byblidaceae, Linderniaceae, [Stilbaceae [[Lamiaceae [Mazaceae [Phrymaceae [Paulowniaceae + Orobanchaceae]]]] [Thomandersiaceae, Verbenaceae, Pedaliaceae, [Schlegeliaceae + Martyniaceae], Bignoniaceae, Acanthaceae, Lentibulariaceae]]]]]]]]: plants ± herbaceous; C and A initiated simultaneously, or A before the C; endosperm also with chalazal haustoria; deletion in the matK gene.

Chemistry, Morphology, etc. For information on the matK deletion, see Hilu et al. (2000); the sampling needs to be improved.

TETRACHONDRACEAE Wettstein   Back to Lamiales

Creeping to erect herb; sorbitol +; cork?; nodes split laterals; hairs moniliform [Polypremum], leaves amphistomatic; leaf bases connate or connected by membranaceous stipules; (inflorescence of 1-2 axillary flowers - Tetrachondra), flowers with two or more pairs of bracteoles; flowers rather small, 4-merous; K initiation diagonal [Polypremum], C with very short tube; anthers free, thecae ?; pollen in tetrads, 6-sulcate, psilate; nectary 0; G transverse [when 2 pairs bracteoles], (ovary 4 partite, slightly inferior, placentation axile, placentae peltate - Polypremum), style (gynobasic - Tetrachondra), (0 - Polypremum), stigma small, subglobose; ovules (2/carpel, basal - Tetrachondra), or many, integument 3-4 cells across [Polypremum]; fruit with persistent green K, either a schizocarp, or a loculicidal (+ septicidal) capsule, seed pedestals +; testa thin, endothelial cells with persistent thickened inner walls; endosperm copious; n = 10, 11, protein bodies in nucleus?

2[list]/3. Patagonia, Australia, New Zealand (Tetrachondra), S. U.S.A. to South America (Polypremum procumbens) (map: approximate). [Photo - Polypremum Flower]

• Tetrachondraceae are perennial erect to prostrate herbs with small, opposite, more or less sessile leaves that are joined at the bases; the flowers are small, four merous, and polysymmetric.

Chemistry, Morphology, etc. Polypremum has both micropylar and chalazal endosperm haustoria; this should be checked in Tetrachondra, a very poorly known genus. The embryo sac of Polypremum protrudes through the nucellar epidermis.

For general information, see Wagstaff (2004a), some additional information is taken from Moore (1948), Mayr & Weber (2006), and Sehr and Weber (2009).

Phylogeny. Chemistry (Harborne & Williams 1971 - scutellarein +, c.f. Gelsemium!; Jensen 2000a), endothelium presence (absent in Loganiaceae), endosperm type, etc., of Polypremum are right for position in Lamiales. The [Polypremum + Tetrachondra] clade is strongly supported (Oxelman et al. 1999a). Wagstaff et al. (2000) found that the sequences of the two species of Tetrachondra, from the Antipodes and S. South America, were almost identical - the distribution is probably recent.

Previous Relationships. Tetrachondra was placed in Boraginales by Takhtajan (1997: two ovules/carpel, gynobasic style in common!) and in Lamiaceae by Cronquist (1981: ditto). Polypremum has always been associated with Loganiaceae s.l.; Takhtajan (1997) included it in his Buddlejaceae.

[[Peltanthera, [Calceolariaceae + Gesneriaceae]] [Plantaginaceae [Scrophulariaceae [Byblidaceae, Linderniaceae, [Stilbaceae [[Lamiaceae [Mazaceae [Phrymaceae [Paulowniaceae + Orobanchaceae]]]] [Thomandersiaceae, Verbenaceae, Pedaliaceae, [Schlegeliaceae + Martyniaceae], Bignoniaceae, Acanthaceae, Lentibulariaceae]]]]]]] / Core Lamiales: shikimic-acid derived anthraquinones, 6- and/or 8- hydroxylated flavone glycosides + [? Tetrachondraceae], storage substances stachyose and other oligosaccarides; flowers vertically monosymmetric, often ± bilabiate; K ± asymmetric, C bilabiate, 2-lobed upper lip, 3-lobed lower lip [= 2:3], adaxial lobes outside the others in bud [ascending cochleate], tube formation late; A 4, didynamous, anthers connivent, placentoids +; pollen tubes lacking callose; ovules many/carpel.

Evolution. Divergence & Distribution. This clade includes the bulk of the diversity within Lamiales. Many of its members are herbaceous or shrubby and have often quite large monosymmetric, bilabiate flowers, and fruits with many small seeds. A didynamous androecium with stamens in two pairs of unequal lengths, is common, and the fusion, or at least close attachment, of the paired anthers may improve pollen removal from the flower (Ren & Tang 2010). The evolution of monosymmetric flowers may be a key innovation in Lamiales (Endress 2011) and would be pegged to this level, but this monosymmetry is not a simple character. It is clear (e.g. Damerval & Manuel 2003; Gübitz et al. 2003; Preston et al. 2011b) that CYC genes have duplicated independently within the clade and become separately involved in the development of the strongly monosymmetric flowers of Antirrhinum, Mimulus and Gesneriaceae.

Chemistry, Morphology, etc. Westerkamp and Claßen-Bockhoff (2007) outline the morphological variation in the corolla. Monosymmetry of the 2:3 type is common and there are four stamens which are often didynamous and with connivent anthers; for staminodes and stamen reduction in general, see Endress (1998) and Song et al. (2009: molecular mechanisms). Nectary vascularization varies: by branches from the main carpellary vascular traces, as in Schlegeliaceae, some Pedaliaceae, Verbenaceae, or separately from the gynoecium, as in Bignoniaceae, Acanthaceae, other Pedaliaceae. This variation suggests that either the distinction between gynoecial and receptacular nectaries (Smets 1988; Smets et al. 2003) is overly simplistic and/or there is homoplasy in this feature. There are septal vascular bundles, the gynoecial vascular system forming a sort of figure of 8 in transverse section, in Bignoniaceae and Schlegeliaceae, while in taxa like Acanthaceae there are no septal bundles, the gynoecial vasculature being almost in a circle (there are of course placental bundles: see Wortley et al. 2005a for details). Knowledge of the distribution of this character needs to be extended. Sensitive stigmatic lobes occur sporadically in this part of the tree (see also Endress 1994b). The level at which to peg the character "embryo suspensor large" is unclear.

For callose, see Prospéri and Cocucci (1979: Oleaceae, etc., not sampled), and for the distribution of various flavone glycosides, see Tomás-Barberán et al. (1988: Mimulus and Orobanche lack the glycosides of Lamiaceae, Verbenaceae, Scrophulariaceae and Plantaginaceae, while those of Lentibulariaceae are somewhat different).

[Calceolariaceae + Gesneriaceae s.l.]: leaves rather soft, lamina margin serrate; cymes paired-flower; endothelial cells in longitudinal rows; endosperm longitudinally furrowed [aulacospermous].

Chemistry, Morphology, etc. In paired-flower cymes the two flowers of the flower-pair have the same orientation. The flower in front of the terminal flower is sometimes subtended by a "bracteole" which may represent the bract of that flower, the flower opposite it being totally suppressed (Weber 1973; Haston & Ronse De Craene 2007); what appears to be a rather strange dichasial cyme may be a modified "panicle". Both Calceolariaceae and Gesneriaceae have at least some taxa with septicidal capsule dehiscence, but how the distribution of this character might appear on a combined tree of the two is unclear.

CALCEOLARIACEAE Olmstead   Back to Lamiales

Herbaceous to shrubs; cork?; nodes 1:1; pericyclic fibres 0; petiole bundle(s) arcuate; leaf bases joined by a line, (lamina margins entire); flowers 4-merous; K orthogonal, valvate, abaxial C lobe saccate, (adaxial "lip" strongly bilobed - Calceolaria triandra), elaiophores as pads of hairs on inside of abaxial lip (0); A 2 [lateral pair] (3 [inc. abaxial member - C. triandra]), thecae (parallel) divergent, confluent on dehiscence or not, (theca 1), staminodes 0; nectary 0; (G semi-inferior), stigma small or capitate or obscurely bilobed; ovules with integument 3-4 cells across; capsule both septicidal and loculicidal, seed pedestals +; testa with anticlinal walls sinuous (straight); endosperm +; n = (8) 9.

2[list]/260: Calceolaria (240-270). Upland tropical and W. temperate South America, Brasil, also New Zealand (some Jovellana) (map: from Sérsic 2004). [Photo - Habit, Flower.]

• Calceolariaceae are herbs or shrubs usually with opposite, serrate leaves that may be joined at the base. Their distinctive flowers are 4-merous, usually with two stamens, no nectary, and often a strongly saccate lower lip with oil-secreting glands as pads of hairs on inside of the lip.

Evolution. Divergence & Distribution. Crown group diversification began (27-)15(-4) m.y.a. (Renner & Schaefer 2010). The bulk of the diversity in the family is included in Calceolaria, and Calceolaria crown group age may be as little as (6-)5(-1) m.y. (Renner & Schaefer 2010), while within Jovellana mean ages for the split between South America and New Zealand range from 9.3-5.3 m.y. - probably long distance dispersal (Nylinder et al. 2012).

Pollination Biology & Seed Dispersal. Pollination in Calceolaria has been studied in detail by Rasmussen and Olesen (2000) and Sérsic (2004). Sternotribic flowers pollinated by Centris bees seem to be plesiomorphous in Calceolaria; species with this and some other morphological features are diploid and have a geographic range that is basically Chilean (Cosacov et al. 2009). Smaller Chalepogenus bees are the other main pollinators; both are anthophorids. Flowers with a closed mouth are visited by larger bees, those with an open mouth by smaller bees; Bombus and Xylocopa visit flowers that lack oil. Visitors remove either oil from oil glands or from specialised hairs, or pollen if there are no oil glands; specialised food bodies are the reward for species that are pollinated by non-nectarivorous birds (Vogel 1974; Sérsic & Cocucci 1996; Rasmussen & Olesen 2000). All told, about 4/5 of the genus have oil flowers (Sérsic 2004), and the ability to produce oil has been lost several times (Renner & Schaefer 2010). Oil glands may have been acquired any time after the split of Calceolaria from Jovellana, i.e., after the crown group age for the whole family (see above: Renner & Schaefer 2010), and it has been suggested that the development of nototribe pollination mechanisms was a key innovation (Cosacov et al. 2009).

Chemistry, Morphology, etc. There has been much discussion over the basic floral meristicity, but flowers in the family seem to be best interpreted as being 4- rather than modified 5-merous (Mayr & Weber 2006: superb micrographs; c.f. e.g. Sérsic 2004). Each lip of the flower seems to be formed from two petals, judging by their vasculature, etc.; these primordium pairs may become connate only rather late in floral development (Mayr & Weber 2006). For floral development, see also Endress (1999).

Some information is taken from Weber (1973: inflorescence), Molau (1988: general), Ehrhart (2000: general), and Fischer (2004b: general, in Scrophulariaceae); see also Tank et al. (2006).

Phylogeny. For a phylogeny of the family, see S. Andersson (2006).

Classification. Porodittia, with three stamens, is a synonym of Stemotria, but neither name is needed as Stemotria is clearly derived from within Calceolaria, thus P. triandra = C. triandra (S. Andersson 2006). The limits of the sections need adjusting.

Thanks. I am grateful to Pamela Puppo for comments.

GESNERIACEAE Richard & Jussieu, nom. cons. s.l., = [Peltanthera [Sanango [Gesnerioideae [Didymocarpoideae + Epithematoideae]]]]: nodes trilacunar or thereabouts.

PELTANTHERA Bentham   Back to Lamiales

Small tree; verbascosides, cornoside derivatives +; nodes 3:3; petiole bundle flattened-annular, with (medullary and) rib bundles; hairs branched-moniliform; leaves not joined at the base; lamina vernation involute; inflorescence axillary, much branched; flower ± polysymmetric, "small"; K ± free, C valvate; A 5, thecae confluent, appearing to be peltate; nectary small; capsule loculicidal; seeds dust-like; n = ?

1/1: Peltanthera costaricensis. Costa Rica to Bolivia (Map: from TROPICOS ii.2013).

[Sanango [Gesnerioideae [Didymocarpoideae + Epithematoideae]]]: distinctive verbascosides [e.g. sanagoside]; stomata anisocytic; leaves ± joined at the base by a line.

SANANGO Bunting & Duke

Shrub or small tree; nodes 7:7 + split lateral; stem with cortical bundles; petiole bundle annular, with inverted adaxial bundles; lamina bundle with sheathing sclerenchyma; stomata in groups; lamina quite coriaceous; flower weakly monosymmetric, "small"; K ± free; A 4 + staminode, thecae confluent; G semi-inferior, placentation axile, style short, stigma capitate-lobed; capsule loculicidal + septicidal; n = 8.

1/1: Sanango racemosum. Ecuador to Bolivia, Venezuela (Map: from Norman 1994; TROPICOS ii.2013).

Evolution. Divergence & Distribution. The crown age for this clade is (68.1-)57.5(-45.1) m.y. (Perret et al. 2013).

GESNERIACEAE s. str.   Back to Lamiales

Usu. herbs or weak-stemmed trees (trees), often epiphytes [ca. 1/5 spp.]; hairs often dense, soft, of stalked glands, or with thickened terminal cells; (cambium storied); (vessel elements with scalariform perforation plates); nodes 1:1 (+ split laterals), 3 or more:3 or more + split laterals); petiole bundle(s) arcuate; lamina bundle lacking sheathing sclerenchyma; (stomata in groups); leaves (anisophyllous; two-ranked; spiral), lamina vernation involute, (margins entire); inflorescence axillary (terminal); K connate, C with abaxial lobe(s) outside others in bud< [= descending cochleate] or quincuncial, (C spurred); A (5, 2), (thecae apically confluent), staminode 1 (0); nectary vascularized; placentation intrusive parietal, placentae ± bilobed, triangular, usu. covered by ovules, stigma broadly bilobed to trumpet-shaped, wet or dry; integument 3-5 cells across; fruit a septicidal capsule; exotestal cells variously elongated and thickened, endotestal cells at most simply persisting; GCyc duplication.

147(+)[list]/3311 - 3 main groups below. Largely tropical. [Photo - Flower]

1. Gesnerioideae Link

3-desoxyanthocyanins +, chalcones, aurones 0; seeds without surface ornamentation, cells much elongated, spirally arranged (ornamented; shorter; not spirally arranged); endosperm conspicuous; GCyc2 gene lost.

63/1086. Predominantly Neotropical, a few S.W. Pacific, East Asia.

1a. Coronanthereae

Trees to ± shrubby-herbaceous, (rooting from the nodes); stomata anomocytic (paracytic); (flowers polysymmetric); (C fringed); (A 2 [adaxial pair]; 5); nectary embedded in G wall, vascularized from A traces; capsules septicidal (and loculicidal; fruit a berry, placentae fleshy); n = 37(-45); gcyc duplication.

9/20: Coronanthera (11). Solomon Islands, Antilles, New Caledonia, S. South America (map: red, from Burtt 1998).

[Titanotricheae + Gesnerieae, etc.]: (plant with scaly rhizomes).

1b. Titanotricheae

Scaly rhizomes +; (stomata anomocytic); inflorescence racemose, with bulbils; testa striate-reticulate; n = 20.

1/1: Titanotrichum oldhamii. China, Japan, Taiwan, scattered in W. Malesia.

1c. Gesnerieae, etc.

(Raphides, styloids +); (nodes 3:3; split-laterals - Columneae, Episcieae); (petiole bundles deeply arcuate to annular); (stomata on raised mounds, usually single [widespread]); (leaves spiral); (flowers resupinate); (K ± free), (C margins fimbriate); ovary superior to inferior, nectary vascularized from numerous vascular bundles in wall; (fruit loculicidal; septicidal + loculicidal; with fleshy placentae or funicles ["display capsule"]; berry); n = (8) 9 (10) 11 (12) 13-14 (16), polyploidy rare.

53/1500: Besleria (150), Drymonia (140+), Alloplectus (75+), Nautilocalyx (70+), Paradrymonia (70+), Gesneria (60), Sinningia (60), Columnea (s.l. = 270+, s. str., 75+, + 4 genera, inc. Dalbergaria [90], Tricantha [75+]), Gesneria (50). New World (map: from Brummitt 2007, in part). [Photo - Leaves, Flower.]

Synonymy: Belloniaceae Martynov, Besleriaceae Rafinesque

[Didymocarpoideae + Epithematoideae]: (plant body of leaf + inflorescence unit[s]); 3-desoxyanthocyanins 0, chalcones, aurones +; ?stomata; ovary wall not richly vascularized, nectary vascularized from A traces; testa cells little elongated; endosperm slight, cotyledons unequal, one accrescent. (map: from van Steenis & van Balgooy 1966 [Malesia and Pacific]; Hillard & Burtt 1971 [Africa].)

2. Didymocarpoideae Arnott

(Plant woody); (nodes 1:1 with split laterals; 3:3 with split laterals; 5:5); (sclereids +); (A not coherent), (2 [abaxial pair]); placentae lamelliform-recurved, ovules restricted to distal end, ovary gradually narrowed into the style; (ovules hemitropous); (fruit with septicidal and loculicidal dehiscence; ± elongated, twisted; circumscissile; a berry); (testa cells ornamented: with [extremely long] hairs); n = (4, 8) 9-11 (12, 13) 14-17, etc., polyploidy not uncommon.

82/2150: Cyrtandra (600), Aeschynanthus (185), Chirita (180), Henckelia (155), Streptocarpus (155), Primulina (150), Paraboea (130), Agalmyla (100), Didymocarpus (100), Oreocharis (85). S. Europe (scattered), Old World, mostly Sri Lanka to Malesia (especially southern China) and the Pacific to Hawaii.

Synonymy: Cyrtandraceae Jack, Didymocarpaceae D. Don, Ramondaceae Godron

3. Epithematoideae

Dihydroxyphenolics [e.g. acteoside] 0; secretory canals; (medullary bundles + - Rhynchoglossum); cymes lacking bracteoles; (abaxial C lobe inside others in bud); (A 2 [adaxial pair]); (nectary variously vascularized); (placentation axile), ovary short, abruptly narrowed into the style; endosperm ?0; n = (8-)10(-12); (seedling primary root not developed).

6/75: Monophyllaea (30+). Predominantly Indo-Malesia, 1 sp. West Africa, 1 sp. (Rhynchoglossum azureum) S. southern Mexico to Peru.

• Gesneriaceae are herbs or rather soft-stemmed shrubs that can be recognised by their opposite, serrate leaves that are often quite fleshy and softly hairy and have arching, ascending secondary veins that do not join at the margin, and by their usually conspicuous monosymmetric flowers which have parietal placentation. In the distinctive cymose inflorescence there is an "extra" flower in front of the terminal flower.

Evolution. Divergence & Distribution. Gesneriaceae may have diverged from other Lamiales 74-71 m.y.a., crown group diversification beginning very soon afterwards (Wikström et al. 2001; Bremer et al 2004); Perret et al. (2013) estimate a rather younger crown group age of (60.5-)44.7(-37.1) m.y.

Möller and Cronk (2002) discussed biogeographic relationships within the large African genus Streptocarpus. Cyrtandra, with its baccate fruits, is a very diverse genus found throughout Malesia, being particularly speciose in places like New Guinea. It is also widely distributed in the Pacific - the species there form a single clade - and has been aptly designated as a "supertramp" genus (Cronk et al. 2005). Fiji may have been the first area in the Pacific to be colonized,the time somewhat over 20 m.y.a.; the Hawaiian colonization, also from the west, was independent of that of the other Pacific islands and happened very soon afterwards; there are now ca 60 endemic species on the islands. Note, however, that diversification within the genus may have begun much earlier, ca 48 m.y.a. in Malesia. (Clark et al. 2009).

Crown Gesnerioideae can be dated to (48.7-)36.2(-32.3) m.y. (Perret et al. 2013: dates for tribal divergences). Within Coronanthereae there seems to have been one (Smith et al. 2006) or two (Woo et al. 2011) E to W dispersal events across the Pacific. Diversification in the New World Gloxinieae occurred some 30-20 m.y.a. (Roalson et al. 2008b: see also biogeographic relationships; estimate in Perret et al. 2013 only (25.0-)21.7(-14.8) m.y.). There is extensive diversification in both flower and fruit in the speciose Episceae (Clark et al. (2011, 2012).

Plant-Animal Interactions. Gesneriaceae are not often eaten by the butterfly caterpilars (Ehrlich & Raven 1964).

Pollination Biology & Seed Dispersal. Birds and bees are the major pollinators of Gesneriaceae. Harrrison et al. (1999) discuss floral diversification in Streptocarpus, which includes species with strongly monosymmetric flowers as well as Saintpaulia, with almost polysymmetric flowers, so encompassing very different flower morphologies and pollinators; for instance, Saintpaulia-type flowers have the buzz pollination syndrome (Clark et al. 2011). Wiehler (1978) estimated that perhaps 60% of neotropical Gesnerioideae - some 600 species - were humming-bird pollinated, and he divided the floral morphologies involved into three common and one less common "types" - rather narrowly tubular; strongly and broadly bilabiate; with a narrow mouth and an asymmetrically swollen tube; and tubular, with the limb more or less rotate. The centers of diversity of both neotropical Gesneriaceae and of hummingbirds are in the Colombia-Ecuador region (Weber 2011; see also Ericaceae). Perret et al. (2007) found that humming birds pollinated perhaps 2/3 of the ca 80 species of Sinningieae, a group centred in the Atlantic forest of Brazil. Wiehler (1978) thought that another ca 30% of Gesnerioideae were pollinated by euglossine bees of both sexes (c.f. Orchidaceae where only male bees seeking scents are involved), and in these flowers the spreading corolla lobes sometimes have long-fimbriate margins; divergence of euglossine bees occurred 42-27 m.y.a. (Ramírez et al. 2010). Martén-Rodriguez et al. (2010) discuss the variety of pollinators of Caribbean Gesnerieae. Bird pollination is relatively less common in Old World Gesneriaceae.

More or less polysymmetric flowers - the corolla may be rotate, but the androecium is often technically monosymmetric - have arisen independently several times in the family, the ten or so genera involved not being immediately related (e.g. Burtt 1970; Smith et al. 2004a), indeed, polysymmetric flowers are notably abundant here compared with some other core lamialean families (Endress 1997a). Relatively little is known about the pollination of such flowers, although as might be expected buzz-pollination has sometimes been recorded (Clark et al. 2011 and references).

Flowers with inverted orientation are known from some Episcieae (Clark & Zimmer 2003); they seem to have evolved ca 3 times. This inverted orientation is evident from the very earliest stages of the ontogeny of the flower, and since there is no twisting of the pedicel (Clark et al. 2006), they are not resupinate by some definitions.

Many Gesneriaceae have capsular fruits with wind dispersed seeds. Splash-cup dispersal, or dispersal by birds and perhaps other animals, either of fleshy fruits in their entirety, or of the black, glistening seeds exposed on a fleshy placenta or swollen funicles, in turn displayed against the coloured inside of the capsule wall (and sometimes surrounded by a coloured calyx!), or of a number of the other variants of fleshy capsule/drupe fruit type, are also common in the New World (Weber 2004b; Clark et al. 2006, 2012). In the Old World, the speciose Cyrtandra has fleshy fruits.

Ecology & Physiology. Although many taxa are rather succulent or sometimes quite delicate herbs, a surprising number grow on exposed rocks (Boea hygrometrica is an example) and are resurrection plants (Burtt 1998 for literature); along with sucrose, galactose oligosaccharides are quite abundant in the dried leaf (Marinone Albini et al. 1999; see also Navari et al. 1995). Hardly surprisingly, epiphytes are common, with well over 400 epiphytic species in neotropical Episcieae alone (Madison 1977; Weber 1978; Gentry & Dodson 1987), although Zotz (2013) estimated that there were only 570 epiphytic species in the whole family, of which ca 275 species were found in the Old World Aeschynanthus and Agalmyla. The evolution of epiphytism within Coronanthereae is described by Salinas et al. (2010).

Vegetative Variation. Variation in growth patterns in this family is considerable (see Weber 2004 for a useful survey). The architecture of some Didymocarpoideae and Epithematoideae is particularly diverse and distinctive. For anisocotyly in general - more accurately, one cotyledon is accrescent - and its development in [Didymocarpoideae + Epithematoideae], see Burtt (1970) and Saueregger and Weber (2004). Streptocarpus (Didymocarpoideae) shows much variation in growth pattern, some species having only a single, accrescent, ever-growing cotyledon (e.g. Hilliard & Burtt 1971; Jong & Burtt 1975); evolution of growth form here has many parallelisms and reversals, as well as being linked with other life history variables, such as age to flowering and flowering periodicity (Möller & Cronk 2001). Jong & Burtt 1975) thought that these ever-growing cotyledons, which they called phyllomorphs, were an example of the evolution of morphological novelty. However, Kaplan (1997, 1: ch. 6) suggested that they were an extreme example of the dominance of the leaf in development, the apical meristem effectively having been evicted. Harrison et al. (2005a) found that genes involved in shoot development were expressed on the petiole in rosulate species of the genus, plants producing leaves, etc., from the petiole, but these genes were not expressed in strictly unifolioliate species. Mantegazza et al. (2009) also suggested that the developmental pathways controlling meristem development appear to have become relocalised. The petiole (= petiolode) itself of Streptocarpus, at least, is unifacial, although not at the seedling stage, when it is bifacial (Tononi et al. 2010). Imaichi et al. (2007) also discuss growth patterns and the evolution of monophylly in Streptocarpus.

Within Epithematoideae, too, anisophylly is common, taxa like Rhynchoglossum having "alternate" leaves. The plant body of many species of Monophyllaea is rather like that of Streptocarpus, consisting of a single, ever-growing structure that is derived from a single cotyledon. A meristem develops at the base of the cotyledon, and inflorescences also develop at the base of the lamina; in some species the flowers even arise along the midrib of the blade rather than from separate inflorescences (Imaichi et al. 2001; see also Tsukaya 2005). The cotyledon that keeps on growing is the one that is exposed to more light (Saueregger & Weber 2005). The plant body of some Monophyllaea can become more complex by repetition of the cotyledonary unit. The radicle of the seedling may not develop, although this has also been noted in other Epithematoideae (Imaichi et al. 2001).

Monophylly in general seems to be an adaptation for life on rocks. The plant grows in cracks of the rock and the single leaf hangs down and covers the rock surface quite efficiently; that the better lighted cotyledon of Monophyllaea develops make sense in this context. Plants whose stems consist of sprays of alternating leaves - if they are opposite, then there is often strong anisophylly - are also common in such situations; again, a photosynthetic surface covering the rock is deployed.

Chemistry, Morphology, etc. Secondary metabolites (lack of iridoids, presence of the caffeoyl phenylethanoid glycoside, sanangoside) seem to suggest an association between Sanango and Gesnerioideae in particular (Jensen 1996). Peltanthera in particular is very similar in wood anatomy to Buddleja (but both genera are woody!), Sanango has vessel elements with scalariform perforation plates like a few other Gesneriaceae such as Kohleria (Carlquist 1997c).

There is quite a lot of anatomical variation which I have not integrated with the clades recognised here. Thus sclereids are common in the stem; Aeschynanthus has strongly U-thickened sclereids in the pericycle, other taxa lack fibres or sclereids in the pericyclic position; some taxa have lignified hairs; Gesneria has a U-shaped petiole bundle cradling a unmedullated circle of vascular tissue, and there are also two wing bundles, or the petiole bundle may be annular, with adaxial bundles, etc. Nodal anatomy is quite variable (see also Howard 1970; Jong et al. 2012), and a fuller survey might repay being placed in the systematic context that is developing for the family. In addition to its distinctive anatomy, Gesneria also has spirally-inserted serrate leaves with an almost coriaceous texture - it looks quite ungesneriaceous.

Song et al. (2009) found thatCYC2 genes were involved in repression of the growth of both the single adaxial stamen and the abaxial stamen pair in Opithandra, so resulting in a flower with but two functional stamens.

For more information, see Trapp (1956b: androecium), Weber (1973: inflorescence), Wiehler (1970: vegetative anatomy, esp. Gesnerioideae), Wilson (1974a, b: nectary vascularization), Skog (1976: Gesnerieae s. str.; 1984: chromosomes), Beaufort-Murphy (1983: seed morphology under the S.E.M., 1984: response to growth hormones, etc.; Cyrtandroideae much more responsive than Gesnerioideae), Kvist and Pedersen (1986: phenolics), Citerne et al. (2000), Smith et al. (2004a), and Zhou et al. (2008: all molecular details of floral development), Jong et al. (2012), Burtt and Wiehler (1995) and Wiehler (1983), general, Möller and Kiehn (2004) and Christie et al. (2012), both cytology, considerable infra-generic variation, and Weber (2004a: excellent general account, 2004b: history of classification, the four major groups with informal names). Pan et al. (2002) discussed the floral development of Titanotrichum (see below for phylogeny). Pollen variation is either uninformative or suggests problems in everything from species delimitation on up (Schlag-Edler & Kien 2001).

For the general morphology of Peltanthera, see Hunziker & Di Fulvio (1957), and for chemistry, see Jensen (2000a); the genus is poorly known. Dickison (1994), Jensen (1994, 1996), Norman (1994), and Wiehler (1994) all deal with Sanango.

Phylogeny. Peltanthera has been placed with Gesneriaceae (e.g. Oxelman et al. 1999a; see also Clark et al. 2010), and is perhaps to be included in Gesneriaceae, but c.f. Soltis et al. (2011). Nylinder et al. (2012: q.v. for dramatically different ages, Sanango included?) found strong support for Peltanthera as sister to Calceolariaceae. However, more recently Perret et al. (2013) in a study focussing on Gesnerioideae found the well supported relationships Peltanthera [Sanango + Gesneriaceae s. str.]], and they are followed here. Epithematoideae are sister to Didymocarpoideae (Cyrtandroideae), see Smith (1996), Smith et al. (1997a, b), Wang et al. (2010), and especially Mayer at al. (2003).

Within Didymocarpoideae, Haberlea and Ramonda, temperate, European, and with polysymmetric flowers and five stamens, may be sister to the rest (e.g. Mayer et al. 2003) or more likely near basal (Möller et al. 2009; Wei et al. 2010; Wang et al. 2010); they have dihydrocaffeoyl ester found nowhere else in flowering plants (Jensen 1996). Some studies (Möller et al. 2009) placed a number of small Asian and European clades all with four or five, rarely two, stamens "basal" in Didymocarpoideae. Of these, the odd Jerdonia, with its pollen in tetrads, four parietal placentae, large seeds with alveolate endosperm, and n = 14 (Burtt 1977b), may be sister to the rest of the subfamily (Möller et al. 2009). Wang et al. (2010: Jerdonia not included) found that Corallodiscus, the Ramonda clade, and Streptocarpus are successive branches in the phylogeny; taxa with actinomorphic flowers are scattered through the tree (see above).

Although Didymocarpus itself has been dismembered (Weber & Burtt 1998) and many species placed in Henckelia, the circumscription and relationships of that genus are still unclear (Möller et al. 2009). For Didymocarpoideae phylogeny, see also Möller et al. (2011a). Within the diverse Cyrtandra, particularly speciose in places like New Guinea, all Pacific species studied are members of a single clade, and within this clade Hawaiian species are sister to the rest (Cronk et al. 2005; Clark et al. 2009). For relationships in Streptocarpus, to include Saintpaulia, see Möller and Cronk (2001), for a study of Aeschynanthus linking seed morphology and geography, see Denduangboripant et al. (2001), for a phylogeny of Chirita and relatives, see Wang et al. (2011) and in particular Weber et al. (2011), and for relationships in an expanded Oreocharis, see Möller et al. (2011b).

Epithematoideae are perhaps to include Cyrtandromoea (molecular data), but this is also sometimes placed in "Scrophulariaceae" - and it does have iridoids and is otherwise chemically similar to the latter; it also has endosperm and an exotesta with laminated, U-shaped thickenings in transverse section, the seeds are isocotylous, and the gynoecium bilocular (Burtt 1965, also a revision, he placed the genus in Scrophulariaceae and linked it with Leucocarpus). Branch lengths are long. Chemistry - Napeanthus (Gesnerioideae) is also similar!

Kotarski et al. (2007) found 80% bootstrap support for the position of Coronanthereae as sister to the other Gesnerioideae, and then Titanotrichum as sister to the remainder. For a phylogeny of Coronanthereae, see Smith et al. (2006) and Woo et al. (2011). Other studies also place the Old World but more or less isocotylar Titanotrichum basal in Gesnerioideae (C.-N. Wang et al. 2004: substantial amount of molecular data; c.f. D. Soltis et al. 2000; Albach et al. 2001), although that genus has also sometimes been placed in "Scrophulariaceae". Besleria and Napeanthus (n = 16) may also be near the base of the Gesnerioideae. Shuaria, a woody plant superficially similar to Sanango that sometimes also has "alternate" leaves, was placed firmly in Beslerieae (Clark et al. 2010). In general agreement with these earlier studies, Perret et al. (2013) found the basal relationships in Gesnerioideae [[Napeantheae + Beslerieae] [Coronathereae [Sinningieae + the rest]]]; Titanotrichum was sister to Napeanthus, neither Shuaria nor Cyrtandromoea were included in their study, although there is little doubt about the placement of the former genus.

Relationships along the rest of the spine of Gesnerioideae remain only weakly supported (e.g. Woo et al. 2011; Perret et al. 2012). However, there seem to be five well supported tribes, Sinningieae, Sphaeorhizeae, Gloxineae, Epiexcieae (Perret et al. 2012). For other relationships in Gesnerioideae, see Smith (2001), Zimmer et al. (2002) and Smith et al. (2004a, b), for relationships around Alloplectus, see Clark and Zimmer (2003), for the phylogeny and biogeographic relationships of Gloxinieae, see Roalson et al. (2005 a, b; 2008b), the last paper focusing on relationships in Central America and the Antilles, and for diversification in Beslerieae, see Roalson and Clark (2006), and in Sinningieae, see Perret et al. (2003, 2006: the limits of Sinningia need adjusting). For relationships within Episcieae, see Clark and Smith (2009); Clark et al. (2012) found that six of fifteen genera for which they sampled two or more species were para- or polyphyletic. See also Skog (1976) for a revision of Gesneria and relationships in Gesnerieae.

Classification. Perret et al. (2013) were undecided as to the circumscription of the family, sometimes suggesting that it be broadened to include Peltanthera and Sanango, sometimes suggesting that those genera might be excluded. However, since both genera are very small, barring major morphological revelations, inclusion would be the better course.

As might be expected of a family in which there are conspicuous flowers and much obvious adaptation to pollinators, current generic limits, based as they are on floral characters, are unsatisfactory. However, much-needed changes are underway, and those in New World Gesneriaceae are clearly explained in a series of articles in Gesneriads 56(3). 2006. Also, see the World Checklist and Bibliography of Gesneriaceae (Skog & Boggan 2005 a, b). In general all current tribal classifications of Didymocarpoideae are decidedly unsatisfactory (Möller et al. 2009), and some genera, perhaps most notably Chirita, are polyphyletic. Indeed, Möller et al. (2011a) found that only 12/29 genera with more than one species they sampled were monophyletic, and there are also many monotypic genera - thus Oreocharis has recently been expanded to include eleven mostly very small Chineae genera (Möller et al. 2011b).

The huge Didymocarpus was fairly recently dismembered (Weber & Burtt 1998), species that had been included there being assigned to 27 genera (including two in Plantaginaceae); many species were placed in Henckelia, although this may still not be monophyletic. Primulina, originally monotypic, has been greatly expanded in the course of understanding the limits of Chirita (Weber et al. 2011), the limits of Paraboea have been adjusted (Puglisi et al. 2011), and on it goes.

Previous Relationships. The limits of Gesneriaceae have been quite stable, although Sanango has previously been placed in Loganiaceae or Buddlejaceae and it is still unclear if a few genera belong here or elsewhere in Lamiales (see above).

[Plantaginaceae [Scrophulariaceae [Byblidaceae, Linderniaceae, [Stilbaceae [[Lamiaceae [Mazaceae [Phrymaceae [Paulowniaceae + Orobanchaceae]]]] [Thomandersiaceae, Verbenaceae, Pedaliaceae, [Schlegeliaceae + Martyniaceae], Bignoniaceae, Acanthaceae, Lentibulariaceae]]]]]]: route II decarboxylated iridoids as glucosides [aucubin, catalpol widespread], 6- or 8-hydroxyflavones or 6 methoxyflavones +, cornosides 0; (embryo sac haustoria +).

Evolution. Plant-Animal Interactions. Caterpillars of Nymphalinae-Melitaeini and -"Kallimini" butterflies are quite common on plants in this group (see Plantaginaceae, Acanthaceae and Orobanchaceae below). They probably moved on to these families from the Urticaceae group of families in Rosales around about the K/T boundary, a shift that may have been followed by an increased diversification rate (Fordyce 2010). Some Melitaeini in turn adopted members of Asteraceae as food plants (Nylin & Wahlberg 2008).

Chemistry, Morphology, etc. Flavonoid 7-O-glucosides and glucuroides are scattered in here (Lamiaceae, Pedaliaceae, Plantaginaceae: Noguchi et al. 2009); iridioid acquisition seems best placed here, with an independent origin in Oleaceae. Extrafloral nectaries in this clade commonly consist of scattered multicellular trichomes (Zimmermann 1932).

PLANTAGINACEAE Jussieu, nom. cons.   Back to Lamiales

Herbs (shrubs; rooted aquatics); (mannitol, sorbitol +, iridoids 0, cornosides +, cardenolides + - Digitalis), little oxalate accumulation; cork various; (leaf endodermis +); hairs with gland head not often vertically divided, (with cystolith); leaves spiral to opposite, simple to compound; (bracteoles 0 - Antirrhineae); (corolla spurred; 0), (descending cochleate); stamens (2 [adaxial pair]; 5-8), thecae parallel, end-to-end, sagittate, or on connective arms, confluent [Penstemon] or not, connective well developed, placentoids usu. 0, (staminode + - esp. Cheloneae, Antirrhineae); pollen exine tectate and reticulate; (placentation intrusive parietal); ovules (-1/carpel), campylotropous?, integument 7-22 cells across, stigma (slightly) capitate or bilobed, dry (wet); fruit a septicidal capsule (loculicidal [Veronica]; poricidal [Antirrhineae]; circumscissile); seeds (1-)many, (pedestals +), exotestal cells with inner walls ± thickened, when winged, cells with reticulate thickenings; endosperm +, mannose-rich polysaccharides + [?distribution], (embryo green; short; curved); n = 6-10 +; protein bodies in nucleus amorphous [not Angelonieae and Gratioleae].

Ca 90[list]/1900: Veronica (ca 450, inc. Hebe, Parahebe, Synthyris, etc.), Penstemon (275), Plantago (275), Linaria (150: tubular protein bodies), Bacopa (55), Stemodia (55), Russelia (50). Mostly temperate (map: from van Steenis & van Balgooy 1966; Hultén 1971; Meusel et al. 1978; Frankenberg & Klaus 1980; Hong 1983; Heide-Jørgensen 2008). [Photo - Callitriche Habit, Hippuris Habit, Veronica Flower.]

• Plantaginaceae s.l. are very difficult to identify and distinguish from Scrophulariaceae s. str., Gesneriaceae, Stilbaceae, etc., all having largish, monosymmetric flowers, furthermore, Hippuris and Callitriche and genera like the more or less wind-pollinated Plantago are also in this clade, and morphological diversification has been very extensive However, the frequent absence of regular partitions in the heads of the glandular hairs is quite unusual in Lamiales, as is septicidal capsule dehiscence, both common in the family.

Evolution. Plant-Animal Interactions. For feeding preferences of a variety of insect groups that might suggest that the erstwhile Plantaginaceae s. str. and Scrophulariaceae s. l. are close, see Airy Shaw (1958) and Allen (1960, 1961). Allen (1960) found different insects eating Plantaginaceae and Scrophulariaceae s. str. (see also below). Larvae of Nymphalinae-Melitaeini butterflies are commonly found here and on Orobanchaceae, but not on Scrophulariaceae (Wahlberg 2001). Agromyzid dipteran leaf miners have diversified on Plantaginaceae (Winkler et al. 2009).

Pollination Biology & Seed Dispersal. Floral morphology is very variable (see Reeves & Olmstead 1998), but Plantaginaceae are predominantly pollinated by large insects and birds; Kampny (1995: as Scrophulariaceae) discussed pollination in the family as a whole. Wilson et al. (2006, see also references) discuss shifts between bee and bird pollination in the speciose North American Penstemon clade; Penstemon is noted for is prominent bearded staminode. Collinsia has a remarkable papilionoid flower, with the distinctively-colored standard being almost lip-like in coloration and formed from the two adaxial petals, the three other petals are flat-coloured, the median abaxial petal forming the keel. Indeed, the overall colour scheme and functional floral morphology is very like that of some species of Lupinus (Kampny 1995; see Baldwin et al. 2011 for floral evolution in Collinsia). Sibthorpia has 5-8-merous, polysymmetric flowers, and polysymmetric flowers have been derived from monosymmetric flowers several times in this family. Linaria has flowers with a single well-developed abaxial spur, but its well-known Peloria mutant has all five perianth members with spurs. Although we now know that it is under simple genetic control, Linnaeus was initially so impressed with the distinctive morpgology of the mutant that he proposed to place it in a genus of its own, Peloria. Of course, Antirrhinum majus is a model organism used for understanding the development of monosymmetric flowers and the involvement of the CYC gene in this (e.g. Rosin & Kramer 2009; Preston et al. 2011 for references); duplication of the gene is evident in Antirrhineae, but not in Digitalis (Gübitz et al. 2003).

Floral evolution in the Veronica/Plantago clade is becoming better understood. Veronica has an open, 4-lobed corolla, but only two stamens; some species have two main veins in the adaxial corolla lobe, perhaps suggesting that it is formed by the fusion of the two adaxial lobes of other members of the family. Wulfenia, sister to Veronica, has tubular and rather weakly lipped (2 + 3) flowers. Aragoa has 4-merous, polysymmetric flowers (c.f. Oleaceae and Tetrachondraceae!), but with five sepals. The flowers of Plantago, sister to Aragoa, are small, polysymmetric, and in dense spikes; they have four sepals, petals and stamens, and are wind pollinated. Their evolution is connected with the degeneration of some floral symmetry genes (Preston et al. 2011a). The Plantago clade is 5-17 m.y. old (Cho et al. 2004; Rønsted et al. 2002b); for relationships within it, see Rønsted et al. (2002b, also Rahn 1996). Bello et al. (2004: see Bello et al. 2002 for a phylogeny) discuss floral evolution in this part of the family, also emphasizing the evolution of polysymmetry.

Muñoz-Centeno et al. (2006) discuss seed morphology in the context of the phylogeny of Plantago; the seeds are mucilaginous, which may have facilitated the three dispersals of this genus from Australia to New Zealand (Tay et al. 2010).

Ecology & Physiology. Philcoxia, a quite recently described white sand endemic from Brasil, was suspected of being carnivorous (Fritsch et al. 2007). This has been confirmed by Pereira et al. (2012): Nematodes stick to the glandular secretions covering the leaves, which are underground, and are then digested by the plant; phosphatase activity has been detected in the hairs. The plants lack mycorrhizae, as is common when there is carnivory.

Genes & Genomes. Bakker et al. (2006a) found major increases in the rate of evolution of the mitochondrial gene nad1 in Plantago and Littorella; Plantago has substitution rates at synonymous sites in the mitochondrial genome (but not in the chloroplast genome) that are 3,000-4,000 times those of nearly all other angiosperm clades (Cho et al. 2004; Mower et al. 2007). In an interesting development, at least three mitochondrial genes have recently been transferred from Cuscuta to species of the Plantago coronopus group (Mower et al. 2010).

In Veronica s.l. no correlation was found between speciation rates and rate of molecular evolution (Müller & Albach 2010).

Chemistry, Morphology, etc. Details of characters like the distribution of hair morpholgies and timing of androecium initiation remain to be clarified, and morphological/developmental synapomorphies for Plantaginaceae may yet be found.

Both Digitalis and Isoplexis have cornosides. Iridoids with an 8,9 double bond - rather uncommon - are scattered in a number of genera (Jensen et al. 2007); at what level this character might be an apomorphy is unclear, although they are to be found in both Veronica and Plantago (Rønsted et al. 2000), and the two genera are close phylogenetically (Bello et al. 2002, 2004). Veronica has mannitol (Taskova et al. 2012), Plantago, sorbitol.

Penstemon is reported () to have a storied cambium. Veronica lyallii has successive subhypodermal phellogens (Gray 1937), while Besseya and Plantago have a foliar endodermis. Hair morphology may be of interest, although Lindernieae were until very recently included in Plantaginaceae even though the heads of their glandular hairs are divided by vertical partitions, and taxa like Russelia and even some Penstemon, still in Plantaginaceae, also have similar hairs (Raman 1991 and references).

Penstemon may have paired-flower cymes (elsewhere in Lamiales in Gesneriaceae and Calceolariaceae). Much work has been done of floral development in this clade, indeed, Linnaeus knew of the peloric mutation of Linaria, and because it was so distinctive, he was inclinedd to place it in a separate genus, Peloria. The development of the petaloid calyx of Rhodochiton is not connected with the expression of B-class genes (Landis et al. 2012).

In a number of taxa in Plantaginaceae the androecium is initiated before the corolla, but other patterns also occur, so androecium initiation is perhaps unlikely to be a synapomorphy for the family (Bello et al. 2004, c.f. Judd et al. 2002). Veronica/Plantago, as well as Digitalis, are members of a clade that has descending-cochleate aestivation (Bello et al. 2004), i.e. in bud the abaxial corolla lobes are outide the others. Petals have sometimes been lost in Synthyris (Hufford 1992b). Illustrations in Chatin (1874) suggest that the ovules of Veronica may be crassinucellate.

For chemistry, see Jensen (2005), Taskova et al. (2006), and Jensen et al. (2009c), for Trapella, see Oliver (1888), and for a general survey, see Thieret (1967). Additional information is provided by Schmid (1906: ovules, Scrophulariaceae s.l.), Junell (1961: gynoecium), Elisens and Tomb (1983: considerable seed variation even in Antirrhineae), and general references: Rahn (1996: as Plantaginaceae), Leins and Erbar (2004a: as Hippuridaceae), Erbar and Leins (2004b: as Callitrichaceae), Schwarzbach (2004: as Plantaginaceae), Ihlenfeldt (2004: as Trapellaceae), Fischer (2004b: as Scrophulariaceae p. pte) and Wagenitz (2004: as Globulariaceae). For floral development, see Schrock and Palser (1967), Leins and Erbar (1988, 2010), and Endress (1999).

Phylogeny. For the circumscription of Plantaginaceae, which initially had only rather weak support, see Olmstead et al. (2001, as Veronicaceae: inclusion of Cheloneae and Hemimerideae may be the problem; for the latter, see Scrophulariaceae below), Oxelman et al. (2005: support stronger), and Tank et al. (2006, summary, as Veronicaceae), also Olmstead and Reeves (1995) and Reeves and Olmstead (1998). Albach et al. (2005a) discuss the circumscription and phylogenetic relationships of the family and the variation that it encompasses.

Gratiolaceae were recognised as a distinct family by Rahmanzadeh et al. (2004); although only three species were examined, the widespread Limosella along with 31 other genera being included... However, the limits and placement of this clade have not been confirmed. Estes and Small (2008) found that a clade including Angelonieae were sister to Gratioleae, Limnophila being part of Gratioleae (1.0 posterior probabilities: Limosella was not sampled). Kornhall and Bremer (2004) placed Limosella in Scrophulariaceae, but they did not look at other members of Gratiolaceae; the relationships they found can be represented as [Myoporum, etc. [Buddleja, etc. [Limosella, Manueleae, etc.]]]. Oxelman et al. (2005) located the majority of Gratiolaceae in Plantaginaceae, but Limosella was again in Scrophulariaceae (see also Schäferhoff et al. 2010).

For the phylogeny of Antirrhineae, see Ghebrehiwit et al. (2003) an Vargas et al. (2004); Fernândez-Mazuecos et al. (2013) discuss relatonships within Linaria. For a phylogeny of Veroniceae, see Albach et al. (2004a, c, 2005c), Taskova et al. (2004, 2006), and Albach and Meudt (2010); the "new" molecular relationships are at least sometimes supported by other data such as chromosome number and iridoid type (Albach et al. 2004b, 2005c; Albach & Meudt 2010). Pedersen et al. (2007 and references), Jensen et al. (2008a) and Maggi et al. (2009) report on some chemistry of ex-Hebe or Hebe s.l.; of the ca 125 species of this complex, all except for a few from New Guinea are found in New Zealand (Albach et al. 2005b) and the genus is polyphyletic. Albach (2008) discusses the limits of Veronica s.l., which includes Hebe, and Wolfe et al. (2006) outline phylogenetic relationships in Penstemon. For the phylogeny of Collinsia and the related Tonella, see Baldwin et al. (2011).

• Philcoxia - a white sand endemic from Brasil (see also above). It has tiny, peltate, leaves with conduplicate-circinate vernation borne at about ground level or underground and coming from underground stems; glandular hairs (?structure) are conspicuous and there are adaxial stomata. The anthers are paired and monothecous (Fritsch et al. 2007; see also Taylor et al. 2000: basic morphology; McPherson 2010: photographs, etc.). The genus is on a long branch in the analysis of Schäferhoff et al. (2010). Pollination is probably by insects.

• Callitrichaceae - a water plant; hairs stellate; plant monoecious; flowers very small; staminate flowers; P 0; A 1(-3), pollen trinucleate, (exine, apertures 0 - see Cooper et al. 2000); carpellate flowers: G [2], transverse, subdivided, styles ± separate, slender; ovules 2/carpel, integument "thin"; fruit a schizocarp, with 4 nutlets; exotesta perhaps persisting. For general evolution in Callitriche, see Philbrick and Les (2000). Pollination may be by wind, or under water, or self pollination through the plant, pollen grains germinating in the anthers and growing through the stem, etc., to the ovules of an adjacent pistillate flower.

• Globulariaceae - shrublets to herbs; inflorescence capitate to racemose; gynoecium pseudomonomerous, 1 pendulous ovule/carpel, only the abaxial carpel developed; fruit nutlike, surrounded by the calyx; n = 8-10, 19. Pollination is by insects.

• Hippuridaceae - a water plant; flavones 0; hairs peltate, glandular; leaves whorled, linear; plant monoecious; flowers very small, monosymmetric by reduction, K a 2-4-lobed or entire rim, C 0; staminate flower: A 1; pollen trinucleate; carpellate flower: G 1, inferior, style single, stigmatic its entire length, stigma dry; ovules 2/carpel, pendulous, apotropous; chalazogamy occurs; fruit achenial or drupaceous; testa structureless, endosperm thin, starchy; n = 16. Pollination is by wind.

• Plantaginaceae s. str. - herbaceous; nodes 3:3; leaves spiral, veins parallel, hairs in axils; flowers small, polysymmetric, (3-)4-merous; style long-branched, stigmatic its entire length, stigma dry; (ovule single, basal, epitropous); fruit circumscissile or nut-like, exotestal cells large, mucilaginous, endotestal cells persist; endosperm +, (embryo curved). Pollination is by wind, insects; the aquatic Litorella is a CAM plant (Keeley 1998).

• Trapellaceae - rhizomatous/stoloniferous aquatic herb; flower quite large, slightly monosymmetric, A 2 [the adaxial pair], connective apically peltate, staminodes 2; ovary inferior, the abaxial loculus much reduced, stigma unequally bilabiate; ovules 2/carpel, apical; fruit indehiscent, K persistent, with an appendage from below the apex of the sepals; testa with thin-walled cells; n = ca 25. Pollination is by insects.

Classification. The circumscription of Plantaginaceae adopted here is broad on the one hand (it incorporates several highly divergent but small clades previously recognized as families) but narrow on the other (it is but a part of the old Scrophulariaceae). Molecular studies suggest that these small but florally very distinctive families are to be included in a clade with relatively large but undistinguished monosymmetric flowers. Maintaining these families as distinct would entail the recognition of a number of other families. Nevertheless, since aquatic taxa like Callitriche and wind-pollinated taxa like some species of Plantago have very distinctive morphologies, they are briefly characterized above. This allows us to get a better understanding of the patterns and extent of variation in Plantaginaceae.

Gratiolaceae were recognised as a distinct family by Rahmanzadeh et al. (2004), who listed included genera, etc. Gratiolaceae have an integument 3-6 cells across, with large, transversely elongated endothelial cells in vertical rows; this causes its seeds to have longitudinal ridges, and the extotestal cells have hook-like thickenings. Rahmanzadeh et al. (2004) thought that Angelonieae (integument 5-12 cells across) might also be included in their Gratiolaceae. However, the limits of the family are unclear, it has no distinct features, and the taxonomic consequences of its recognition have not been thought through.

Sutton (1988) monographed Antirrhineae.

Previous Relationships. Both Cronquist (1891) and Takhtajan (1997) recognise several of the smaller families just mentioned, but they are in the same general part of their sequences; note that Cronquist has a notably broad circumscription of Globulariaceae and includes a number of genera here placed in Scrophulariaceae. Trapella has been included in Pedaliaceae (e.g. Cronquist 1981), in part because its stoutly-spiny fruits appear to be so similar to those of Pedaliaceae.

Thanks. I thank Dirk Albach for comments.

Synonymy: Antirrhinaceae Persoon, Aragoaceae D. Don, Callitrichaceae Link, nom. cons., Chelonaceae Martynov, Digitalidaceae Martynov, Ellisophyllaceae Honda, Erinaceae Pfeiffer, Globulariaceae Candolle, nom. cons., Gratiolaceae Martynov, Hippuridaceae Vest, nom. cons., Linariaceae Berchtold & J. Presl, Littorellaceae Gray, Oxycladaceae Schnizlein, Psylliaceae Horaninow, Scopariaceae Trinius, Sibthorpiaceae D. Don, Trapellaceae Honda & Sakisaka, Veronicaceae Cassel

[Scrophulariaceae [Byblidaceae, Linderniaceae, [Stilbaceae [[Lamiaceae [Mazaceae [Phrymaceae [Paulowniaceae + Orobanchaceae]]]] [Thomandersiaceae, Verbenaceae, Pedaliaceae, [Schlegeliaceae + Martyniaceae], Bignoniaceae, Acanthaceae, Lentibulariaceae]]]]]: ?

SCROPHULARIACEAE Jussieu, nom. cons.   Back to Lamiales

Herbs or shrubs; harpagide, harpagioside [8ß-8α-methyl substituted iridoids] +, little oxalate accumulation; (cork inner cortical); nodes also 1:3 + girdling bundle; (secretory cavities +); (indumentum stellate); (stomata anisocytic); leaves opposite, (basally connate), or spiral, lamina (punctate), vernation flat, (± foliaceous, stipuliform structures +); (inflorescence racemose); (bracts recaulescent); (flowers polysymmetric; 4-merous); K unequal or not; (A 5 - Verbascum, Capraria; 2), thecae head to head and confluent, ± clavate, or parallel; (colpi diorate); staminodia +/0; nectary small or 0; stigma capitate (lingulate), dry or wet; ovules ³1 /carpel, apo/epi/pleurotropous, integument 5-11(-12) cells thick; capsule septicidal (and apically loculicidal - Buddleja), (berry; drupe; schizocarp); seeds many, pedestals/cushion-shaped scars on the placentae widespread; exotestal and endotestal cells with thickened inner walls, (testa multiplicative, exotestal cells ± longitudinally elongated, inner walls thickened - Buddleja); endosperm (ruminate [alveolate] because of inpushings of individual entotestal cells), copious to 0; n = 6-9, 12+ [18 - Myoporaceae s. str.], (protein crystal stacks in nucleus).

65[list]/1800: Verbascum (360), Eremophila (215), Scrophularia (200), Selago (190), Buddleja (125: inc. Nicodemia, Emorya, Gomphostigma), Jamesbrittenia (85), Manulea (75), Diascia (70), Nemesia (65), Zaluzianskya (55), Chaenostoma (46). World wide (map: from Hultén 1958, 1971; van Steenis & van Balgooy 1966; Meusel et al. 1978; Leeuwenberg 1979; Hong 1983; Hilliard 1994; Norman 2000; Lebrun 1977, 1979 [Sahara]) [Photo - Flower, Flower, Myoporaceae s.str., again.]

Evolution. Plant-Animal Interactions. Mohrbutter (1937) notes both fungi and leaf miners that attack members of Scrophulariaceae s.l. (Buddlejaceae and Scrophulariaceae s. str.), thus the dipteran agromyzid miner Amauromyza verbasci has been found on Verbascum, Scrophularia and Buddleja (Spencer 1990). Some other insect herbivores seem to be able to distinguish between Plantaginaceae and Scrophulariaceae (e.g. Allen 1960).

Pollination Biology & Seed Dispersal. Scrophulariaceae include quite a few taxa that have oil-flowers with oil-secreting hairs (Vogel 1974; Vogel & Cocucci 1995 for a list; Renner & Schaefer 2010). Details of the pollination of the remarkable two-spurred oil-flowers of Diascia are well known. The bee Redivia collects oil from the oil-secreting hairs in the spurs by its sometimes remarkably elongated front pair of legs (Vogel 1984; Steiner 1990; Rasmussen & Olesen 2000; Steiner & Whitehead 1991); flowers of some Orchidaceae from the same area are rather similar. The South American Monttea and Angelonia also have weakly bisaccate oil-producing flowers; in the latter genus the visiting bees have either their front (Centris) or middle (Tapinotaspis) legs elongated. (Sérsic & Cocucci 1999; Machado et al. 2002). Flowers of Scrophularia are pollinated by wasps (see Kampny 1995: general literature on pollination here).

Chemistry, Morphology, etc. Harpagide and harpagioside, occurring here, are iridoids found elsewhere in Lamiales in Lamiaceae (inc. Caryopteris) and Pedaliaceae (Hegnauer & Kooiman 1978; Nicoletti et al. 1988), but Soltis et al. (2005b) suggest that such acylated rhamnosyl iridoids characterise the clade. The chemistry of Buddlejaceae (see Jensen 2000b) and Scrophulariaceae s. str. is in general similar (Houghton et al. 2003); for the chemistry of Myoporaceae s. str., see Ghisalberti (1994), and for that of Verbascum, see Geogiev et al. (2011). Nicodemia (= Buddleja) is reported to have tannin (Bate-Smith & Metcalfe 1957).

The wood anatomy of Buddleja is similar to that of Nuxia, Peltanthera, Androya, etc. (Carlquist 1997c), i.e. with taxa that are not immediately related to it. Some Scrophulariaceae have opposite leaves, an angled stem, and 1:3 nodes, however, I have not seen the little bundles of fibres that run along the ridges of otherwise similar stems in Linderniaceae. There are glands in the leaves of Leucophyllum and Capraria, c.f. those of Myoporaceae (Lersten & Beaman 1998; Lersten & Curtis 2001). Scrophularia and Verbascum also have distinctive cells (idioblasts) in their leaves (Lersten & Curtis 1997) perhaps similar to the glands of Myoporaceae s. str.

Taxa with more or less polysymmetric flowers - sometimes rather like those of Silene, which some South African species may mimic - are common in almost all tribes, although the corolla tube of such flowers may be more or less bent and the two pairs of anthers are borne at different heights in the tube. There are also taxa with five corolla lobes and stamens (Capraria) and four lobes and stamens (some species of Buddleja), and in both cases the flowers are fully polysymmetric. Flowers of Verbascum s. str. have five stamens, but those of Celsia, embedded in Verbascum, have only four. Hemimeris may have inverted (and inversostylous!) flowers, but the adaxial lobe of the corolla is patterned, i.e. it is not really different from the normal condition with patterning on the abaxial lobe and adjacent lateral abaxial lobes. Stamens with two apically-confluent thecae are common; the anthers may be straight or U-shaped, but not sagittate. Both Buddleja and Verbascum lack orbicules in their anthers (Vinckier and Smets 2002a).

A number of taxa have cushion-shaped scars on the placenta, often with a central umbo or pedestal, and these mark the place where the seeds fell off; other taxa in e.g. the single-ovuled members of Manuleeae have much thickened funicles that may be related to these scars.

Additional information is taken from Hartl (1959: seed coat/rumination), Jansen (1999) and Harborne and Williams (1971), both chemistry, and Rogers (1986: as Loganiaceae, but including some genera belonging here: general), Maldonado de Magnano (1986b, 1987: embryology of Buddleja), Oxelman et al. (2004a: Buddlejaceae s. str., 2005), Theisen and Fischer (2004: as Myoporaceae), Fischer (2004b: Scrophulariaceae p. pte), and for floral development, see Armstrong and Douglas (1989) and Endress (1999).

Phylogeny. For phylogenetic relationships, see B. Bremer et al. (1994) and Nickrent et al. (1998). The main issues are relationships with the old Selaginaceae, Buddlejaceae and Myoporaceae.

The old Selaginaceae/Selagineae with a single apical ovule per loculus link with Scrophulariaceae-Manuleeae, although the latter have more ovules, these are very variable in both number and orientation (see also Hilliard & Burtt 1977; Hilliard 1994). A number of these taxa have bracts that are adnate to the calyx, a deeply lobed calyx, nectary to one side of the ovary, lingulate stigma, etc. (Kornhall et al. 2001, which see for phylogeny and optimisation of characters). Also included here are Scrophulariaceae-Hemimerideae (see also Oxelman et al. 1999b), and recent work suggests that the cosmopolitan aquatic Limosella is to be placed with these southern African taxa (Kornhall & Bremer 2004).

Buddleja, ex Loganiaceae, is very much paraphyletic and includes Nicodemia, Emorya, and Gomphostigma; several lines of evidence place it in Scrophulariaceae (e.g. Maldonado de Magnano 1986b). Teedia and Oftia have strong support as the sister group to Buddleja s.l. (Wallick et al. 2001, 2002), while Kornhall et al. (2001) found that most Scrophulariaceae were sister to Buddleja and immediate relatives. Androya, also ex-Loganiaceae, is sister to Myopyrum (Kornhall et al. 2001).

The old Myoporaceae are usually shrubby plants with more or less sessile and isobilateral leaves that have pellucid gland dots, and sympetalous and often strongly monosymmetric flowers, but Leucophyllum has only a single pellucid gland at the apex of the lamina and Eremogeton has none. Core Myoporaceae have only a few epitropous ovules per loculus, the seeds have only slight endosperm, and the fruit is a drupe or schizocarp. The association of Leucophyllum with Myoporaceae is well established (e.g. Schwarzbach & McDade 2002; Gándara & Sosa 2013), and both have distinctive pollen - tricolpate, with each colpus diorate (Niezgoda & Tomb 1975; Argue 1980). Capraria has glands in its leaves and pollen like that of other Myoporaceae; again, it fits nicely here (for leaf glands of these two genera, see Lersten & Beaman 1998; c.f. also Henrickson & Flyr 1985; Lersten & Curtis 2001). Within Leucophylleae, Leucophyllum is strongly paraphyletic, including the other genera just mentioned Gándara & Sosa 2013: support poor to strong). Androya (used to be Buddlejaceae) and Aptosimum may be around here; the former, however, has pollen that has been compared with that of Nicodemia (Loganiaceae s. str.). Oftia has intraxylary phloem; this is not known for Teedia, its close relative. Oftia, with a racemose inflorescence, only four ovules/carpel, and a drupaceous fruit, the seeds having a very hard testa and copious endosperm, is also Myoporaceae, for some (see Takhtajan 1997: some information from Dahlgren & Rao 1971). Olmstead et al. (2001) suggested that recognition of Myoporaceae may make Scrophulariaceae paraphyletic. Its position varies: sister to Scrophulariaceae s.l., inc. Buddleja (Kornhall et al. 2001), or sister to Leucophylleae, in turn sister to Androya, the whole lot embedded in Scrophulariaceae (Oxelman et al. 2005). Chinnock (2007) monographed Myoporaceae s. str., and he suggested it could well be included in Scrophulariaceae.

Classification. Generic limits in Leucophylleae will probably need to be redrawn; a single genus for the tribe may be best (c.f. Gándara & Sosa 2013).

Previous Relationships. The limits of Scrophulariaceae have long been problematic (Thieret 1967 for a summary; Olmstead 2002 for a readable account of the implications of the findings of molecular data). Rahmanzadeh et al. (2004), Albach et al. (2005a) and Oxelman et al. (2005) are clarifying the contents of the separate clades that used to be subsumed in Scrophulariaceae s. l. (see also B. Bremer et al. 2002; Tank et al. 2006); for further details see the introduction to Lamiales above.

Members of the classical Scrophulariaceae are now to be found in Plantaginaceae and Orobanchaceae (these have most of the taxa that have moved), as well as Stilbaceae, Phrymaceae, and Linderniaceae. Other genera associated with Scrophulariaceae and thought to be links with other families include Nelsonia and its relatives (see Acanthaceae) and Paulownia (see Paulowniaceae). Buddleja used to be included in Loganiaceae or placed in its own family.

Thanks. To F. Zapata, for useful comments on the family.

Synonymy: Bontiaceae Horaninow, Buddlejaceae K. Wilhelm, nom. cons., Caprariaceae Martynov, Hebenstretiaceae Horaninow, Hemimeridaceae Doweld, Limosellaceae J. Agardh, Myoporaceae R. Brown, nom. cons., Oftiaceae Takhtajan & Reveal, Selaginaceae Choisy, nom. cons., Verbascaceae Berchtold & J. Presl

[Byblidaceae, Linderniaceae, [Stilbaceae [[Lamiaceae [Mazaceae [Phrymaceae [Paulowniaceae + Orobanchaceae]]]] [Thomandersiaceae, Verbenaceae, Pedaliaceae, [Schlegeliaceae + Martyniaceae], Bignoniaceae, Acanthaceae, Lentibulariaceae]]]]: ?

BYBLIDACEAE Domin, nom. cons.   Back to Lamiales

Rhizomatous and woody to ephemeral herbs; cork?; young stem with separate bundles; nodes 1:1 or 1:3; stomata paracytic; leaves spiral, lamina linear, abaxially curved or straight, veins parallel; flowers single, axillary; flowers subpolysymmetric, bracteoles 0; K connate only basally, C contorted, connate only basally, margins fimbriate; A ± monosymmetric, stamens = and opposite sepals, shortly epipetalous, anthers dehiscing by short slits or pores, epidermal cells ephemeral; nectary 0; stigma punctate to capitate (slightly bilobed); ovules 2-several/carpel, ± apical; exotestal cells tangentially somewhat elongated, anticlinal walls not uniformly thickened, mesotesta sclerenchymatous; endosperm starchy, with aleurone, copious; n = 8, 9; proteinaceous inclusions in the nucleus?

1[list]/6. W. and N. Australia, S. New Guinea (map: from van Steenis 1971; FloraBase 2004). [Photos - Collection]

• Byblidaceae are rhizomatous to ephemeral herbs with linear leaves that are often abaxially curled in bud and are densely covered by glands. The larger glands, with their heads formed from a single layer of cells radially divided, are conspicuous and look like little parasols; the sessile glands are smaller versions of these. The axillary, polysymmetric flowers have a broadly-spreading, contorted corolla that is only shortly connate at the base, anthers that open by pores and whose apices form a cone, and a long style.

Evolution. Divergence & Distribution. A single seed, now destroyed, from the Middle Eocene of South Australia may be assignable to this family (Conran & Christophel 2004).

Ecology & Physiology. Although there is no evidence that the plant absorbs nutrients from the insects that often stick to it (Hartmeyer 1997, 1998; Mueller et al. 2001), Conran and Carolin (2004) note that mirid bugs are associated with the genus, and so there may be a relationship similar to that in Roridula (Ericales) where the plant absorbs nutrients from the excreta of the bug.

Pollination Biology & Seed Dispersal. Although the flowers are basically polysymmetric, the stamens are held to one side of the flower. Buzz pollination is likely.

Chemistry, Morphology, etc. Byblis linifolia has leaves that are abaxially curled in bud - is this they are like those of Drosophyllum (Drosophyllaceae, Caryophyllales). However, the glandular hairs of Byblidaceae have the typical structure of those of core Lamiales and look like little parasols; those of Drosophyllum are vascularized and have irregularly arranged cells in the head. Diels (1930b) drew the flower of Byblis with the odd sepal abaxial. Byblidaceae are often described as being bitegmic, but c.f. Diels (1930b) and Vani-Hardev (1972).

See Conran (1996: embryology), Cutler and Gregory (1998: anatomy), Conran et al. (2002: chromosome numbers), Conran and Carolin (2004: general), McPherson (2008, 2010: general), and the Carnivorous Plants Database (general) for more information, and Lloyd (1942) and Juniper et al. (1989) for details of the morphology of the plant.

Previous Relationships. Roridula (see Roridulaceae - Ericales) has hitherto often been placed in the same family as Byblis as Byblidaceae and then included in Rosales, as by Cronquist (1981), or the two kept separate, but both placed in Byblidales, in Aralianae, as by Takhtajan (1997).

LINDERNIACEAE Borsch, K. Müller, & Eb. Fischer   Back to Lamiales

Ephemerals to suffruticose perennials; iridoids 0; cork?; nodes 1:3; stems angled; leaves opposite (basally connate), lamina venation also pamate, margins entire or serrate; inflorescence racemose or flowers from the axils of leaves; bracteoles 0; (K free); C with glandular hairs on the inside; A 4, staminode +/0, or A 2, the adaxial pair, also 2 large abaxial Z-shaped staminodes with an appendage, or staminodes much reduced, or A 2, the abaxial pair only, thecae parallel to ± head to head; pollen 3(-5)-colpate; stigma bilobed, sensitive; ovule with spathulate embryo sac; capsule septicidal or -fragal; seeds with ruminate endosperm, surface alveolate or furrowed (smooth); n = 8, 9, 12-14, etc. [x = 7-9?].

Ca 14[list]/195: Lindernia (100), Torenia (40). Pantropical to warm temperate, mostly New World (map: based on Fischer 1992; Lewis 2000).

• Linderniaceae are often rather small herbs with opposite leaves, square stems, and monosymmetric flowers with a sensitive stigma and the lower stamens usually very different from the upper, either Z-shaped, or long and curved, with a projection, or very much reduced.

Evolution. Ecology & Physiology. Although many Linderniaceae seem to be rather delicate little herbs, a number are dessication tolerant (poikilohydric). These include the remarkable Chamaegigas intrepidus, which grows in transient pools - it is an aquatic resurrection plant - on inselbergs and probably uses glycine and serine as nitrogen sources (Heilmeier & Hartung 2011). Fresh leaves of Craterostigma plantagineum store large amounts of the unusual sugar, 2-octulose, which is converted into sucrose as the leaf dries (Bianchi et al. 1993; Farrant 2000). For more information on dessication tolerance in the family, see Dinakar and Bartels (2012 and references).

Pollination Biology & Seed Dispersal. In some species the anthers of the abaxial stamens are yellow and lie on the abaxial lip; they appear to contribute to the attractive aspect of the lip, while in other species the long, curved abaxial filaments are joined by the connate anthers and form a sort of balustrade across the mouth of the corolla. Various hairs develop on the abaxial anther knees, and also inside the corolla, and the latter may have projections, flanges, etc.; all in all, a complex little flower (see e.g. Magin et al. 1989). It would be interesting to know details of pollination mechanisms for such flowers, although small bees have been recorded as visitors (Magin et al. 1989). In Torenia fournieri, which has a less obviously distinctive floral morphology, the adaxial stamen pair elongate quickly; the abaxial pair has anthers which, when touched on lever-like lateral flanges, open and forcibly extrude their pollen (Armstrong 1992).

Chemistry, Morphology, etc. The nodes appear to be 1:3, rather than 3:3 as I originally thought. Small strands of lignified tissue are associated with the sharp ridges of the stems in the couple of species that I have looked at. The glandular heads of the hairs on the corolla and the vegetative plant have vertical partitions, as is common in Lamiales.

For the floral development of Torenia, see Armstrong (1988). Lewis (2002) suggests that the anthers are extrorse and the ovules are straight; Fischer (1992), however, gives a floral diagram showing introrse anthers and describes the ovules as being anatropous to hemitropous. The integument is up to about four cells thick. The embryo sac protrudes beyond the micropyle in some species of both Torenia and Lindernia, at least (Wardlaw 1955; Yamazaki 1955); the synergids can then be ablated easily in studies of fertilization (Higashiyama et al. 2006). The rumination of the endosperm is caused by inpushings of endothelial cells (alveoli); these may become confluent and the seeds may then have longitudinal ridges.

For more information, see Fischer (1989, 1992, 2004b - the latter Scrophulariaceae pro parte: general).

Phylogeny. Rahmanzadeh et al. (2004) recovered this clade with 100% bootstrap support. Albach et al. (2005a) analysed four genes, separate analyses of three of which suggested this clade was distinct from Plantaginaceae; the joint analysis also supported separation. Micranthemum, with only two stamens, was sister to Lindernieae, whose members made up the rest of this clade, but it was not included in the analysis of Rahmanzadeh et al. (2004). Oxelman et al. (2005) found that Micranthemum was sister to Torenia, the two in turn were sister to Stemodiopsis, the only three Linderniaceae they included. See also Tank et al. (2006) for a summary of our ideas of relationships within this clade, and for the inclusion of Cubitanthus, ex-Gesneriaceae, see Perret et al. (2013) - it is sister to Stemodiopsis

Classification. See Rahmanzadeh et al. (2004: they do not included Micranthemum) and Tank et al. (2006) for the composition of Linderniaceae; the generic list here is rather notional. If Micranthemum belongs in this clade, some other Scrophulariaceae-Microcarpeae may also have to be included; they include aquatic herbs whose flowers usually have only the abaxial stamen pair fertile; the filaments have "clavate geniculations at base" (Fischer 2004b).

[Stilbaceae [[Lamiaceae [Mazaceae [Phrymaceae [Paulowniaceae + Orobanchaceae]]]] [Thomandersiaceae, Verbenaceae, Pedaliaceae, [Schlegeliaceae + Martyniaceae], Bignoniaceae, Acanthaceae, Lentibulariaceae]]]: ?

STILBACEAE Kunth, nom. cons.   Back to Lamiales

Ericoid shrubs, ordinary shrubs, or herbs; C-8 iridoid glucosides +, (cornosides +); cork just outside pericycle; vessel elements also with scalariform perforation plates; nodes ?; petiole bundle?; stomata?, cuticle waxes as rods or threads; lamina vernation revolute or not, (margins minutely toothed); inflorescences axillary or terminal (flowers axillary); bracteoles as long as K; flowers often radial, (4) 5(-7)-merous; K bilobed or not (free), C lobes equal to unequal; stamens = and opposite sepals, (one fewer; staminode +), anther thecae confluent apically or parallel with separate slits; ovary apically unilocular, or unilocular, [1 G infertile, or septum 0], or bilocular, stigma slightly bifid or punctate; ovules 1-2/carpel, ascending and/or descending, apo/epitropous, or many; fruit a loculicidal (and septicidal) capsule (indehiscent), K and C persistent; (seeds with pedestals - Charadrophila); embryo cylindrical [always?], endosperm +; n = 10, 12, 19; protein bodies in nucleus crystalline [Halleria].

11[list]/39: Nuxia (15). Most South Africa, the Cape Province, also to tropical Africa, Madagascar, the Mascarenes and Arabia (map: from Leeuwenberg 1975). [Photo - Nuxia Inflorescence, Halleria Flower.]

Evolution. Pollination Biology & Seed Dispersal. Oil flowers are quite common in the family (Renner & Schaefer 2010).

Chemistry, Morphology, etc. The C-8 iridoid glucosides common in Stilbaceae are extremely uncommon elsewhere (Frederiksen et al. 1999); for unedoside, present in at least some genera of Stilbaceae, see Oxelman et al. (2004a). Indeed, some iridoids are like those of Loasaceae and Hydrangeaceae; all three have unedoside (Jensen et al. 1998). By and large, the gynoecium is reminiscent of that of Scrophulariaceae-Manueleae. Thesmophora appears to have two collateral carpels, each with one descending ovule (Rourke 1993) - perhaps an abaxial carpel divided by a false septum.

For anatomy and morphology, see Carlquist (1986) and Dahgren et al. (1979), for some ovules, see Junell (1934), for embryology, see Engell (1987), for the morphology of Charadrophila, see Weber (1989), and for general information, see Linder (2004: the family narrowly circumscribed), Fischer (2004b: some genera under Scrophulariaceae), and Tank et al. (2006: composition).

Phylogeny. Retziaceae and Stilbaceae come out together in rbcL trees (Wagstaff & Olmstead 1997); for another early study on relationships, see B. Bremer et al. (1994). Nuxia (ex Loganiaceae) is also placed here in molecular phylogenies (Backlund et al. 2000; Wallick et al. 2002), and this makes phytochemical sense (Frederiksen et al. 1999). Halleria is also to be included in Stilbaceae (Olmstead et al. 2001). Genera like the gesneriad-like Charadrophila (the common name for this plant is "Cape gloxinia"!) and Scrophulariaceae-Bowkerieae (Bowkeria, Anastrebe and Ixianthes) are now members of the family (Oxelman et al. 2005). Thesmophora has not been included in these studies.

Classification. Rourke (2000) recognised two subfamilies, Retzioideae and Stilboideae, in Retziaceae, Kornhall (2004) recognized three tribes. However, the circumscription of the family has greatly changed from what it was ten years ago, and it is unclear what might be its apomorphies.

Synonymy: Hallieraceae Trinius, Retziaceae Choisy

[[Lamiaceae [Paulowniaceae, Phrymaceae, Orobanchaceae]] [Thomandersiaceae, Verbenaceae, Pedaliaceae, [Schlegeliaceae + Martyniaceae], Bignoniaceae, Acanthaceae, Lentibulariaceae]]: ?

[Lamiaceae [Mazaceae [Phrymaceae [Paulowniaceae + Orobanchaceae]]]] : ?

Phylogeny. This clade was retrieved by McDade et al. (2012), although many of the support values were low.

LAMIACEAE Martynov, nom. cons.//LABIATAE Jussieu, nom. cons. et nom alt.   Back to Lamiales

Herbs (trees, vines); diterpenoids, betaines, C4-decarboxylated iridoids +; cork also deep-seated; (pits vestured); (nodes 1:2); petiole bundles arcuate (annular); stomata diacytic (anomocytic); stem often square; (eglandular hairs unicellular; stellate); leaves simple or palmately compound, lamina vernation variable, margins toothed; A (2), staminode 0 (+); tapetal cells multinucleate; pollen 3-colpate, exine not thickened near apertures; G [2], style (unequally) bifid, stigma inconspicuous, not expanded, dry (wet); ovules 2/carpel, borne on inner side of carpel margin, apotropous, integument 5-9 cells across; fruit indehiscent, a schizocarp, K persistent; testa usu. thin, exotestal cells elongated or not, thickened on radial and often inner walls, (hypodermal cells sclerenchymatous).

236[list]/7173 - 7 subfamilies below. World-wide (map: from Vester 1940; Hultén 1971; Van Balgooy 1975; Lebrun 1979; Frankenberg & Klaus 1980). [Photos - Collection] [Photo - Fleshy fruit]

1. Symphorematoideae Briquet

Lianes; ?diterpenoids; inflorescences of 3-7-flowered capitate cymes each with an involucre of bracts; flowers polysymmetric; K 5-8, C 5-16; A 4-18; nectary 0; G imperfectly 2-locular; ovules apical, pendulous, straight, funicle 0; embryo sac ± on surface of ovule; ?endosperm; n = 12, 14, 17, 18.

3/27. India, Sri Lanka, South East Asia, Malesia.

Synonymy: Symphoremataceae Wight

The Rest: ovules subbasal, ± erect, anatropous.

2. Viticoideae Briquet

Often woody; (hairs branched); (leaves compound); nectary 0 or poorly developed; fruit a drupe; ?endosperm.

10/376-526: Vitex (250), Premna (50-200). Tropical, esp. South East Asia-Australia.

Synonymy: Viticaceae Jussieu

3. Ajugoideae Kosteletzky

(Aromatic, no terpenoids, etc.); flowers (4 [Aegiphila] merous), also polysymmetric or 1-lipped [lobes 0:5 - Teucrium]; pollen exine with branched (simple, granular, etc.) columellae; nectray slight-0 (+); style often ± terminal; (antipodal cells numerous); nutlets reticulate (furit a drupe, K coloured, accrescent); ; endosperm several-layered/0, cotyledons investing embryo [?common]; n = 7, 10, 13, 14, 16+.

24/1115: Clerodendrum (150), Teucrium (250), Aegiphila (120), Rotheca (50-60), Ajuga (40-50). Cosmopolitan, but many temperate, and esp. South East Asia to Australia.

Synonymy: Aegiphilaceae Rafinesque, Ajugaceae Döll, Siphonanthaceae Rafinesque

4. Prostantheroideae Luersson

(Aromatic); (shrubby); (microphyllous); flowers polysymmetric (monosymmetric), 4-8 merous; (staminodes 2); (disc 0); endosperm +; n = ?

16/317: Prostanthera (100), Hemigenia (50), Pityrodia (45). Australia.

Synonymy: Chloanthaceae Hutchinson

5. Nepetoideae Kosteletzky

Commonly aromatic [volatile terpenoids, rosmarinic acid], nepetoidin A and B [caffeic acid esters], (distinctive seed fatty acids) +, betaine concentration low, iridoid glycosides, acteosides 0 (+); stem endodermis +; calyx with epidermal prismatic calcium oxalate crystals; (A 2, unithecate); pollen hexacolpate, trinucleate; style gynobasic; exocarp with mucilaginous cells producing hygroscopic spiral fibrils; endosperm development highly asymmetric, the two haustoria lying close to each other, 1-layered [0?], cotyledons investing embryo; n = 6+; frequently attacked by Puccinia menthae.

105/3675: Salvia (900+: ?inc. Rosmarinus, Thymus, Mentha, Origanum), Plectranthus (300: inc. Coleus), Hyptis (280), Thymus (220), Nepeta (200+), Clinopodium (100), Isodon (100), Micromeria (70), Ocimum (65), Platostoma (45), Aeollanthus (40), Hedeoma (40), Lepechinia (40), Origanum (40), Pyconostachys (40). World-wide, but esp. (warm) temperate.

Synonymy: Glechomaceae Martynov, Mellitidaceae Martynov, Menthaceae Burnett, Monardaceae Döll, Nepetaceae Berchtold & J. Presl, Salviaceae Berchtold & J. Presl, Saturejaceae Döll

[Scutellarioideae + Lamioideae]: stem endodermis +; style gynobasic; calyx ribbed, fibrous.

6. Scutellarioideae Caruel

(Aromatic, no terpenoids, etc.); inflorescence racemose; K two-lipped (rotate, coloured - Holmskioldia), lobes rounded; (C 0:5); (style ± terminal - Wenchengia); seeds tuberculate; endosperm various; n = 12+.

5/380: Scutellaria (360). ± Cosmopolitan.

Synonymy: Salazariaceae F. A. Barkley, Scutellariaceae Döll

7. Lamioideae Harley

(Aromatic), laballenic fatty acid and related compounds [l.a. = CH₃CH₂)₁₀CH=C=CH(CH₂)₃COOH]; (calyx mesophyll with narrow prismatic calcium oxalate crystals); (stamens 4, about the same length - Pogostemon and relatives); (ovule with glandular hairs - Leonurus, Teucrium); embryo sac with micropylar lobe longer and broader than chalazal lobe; nutlets hardly reticulate; endosperm several-layered, embryo spatulate; n = 6+.

63/1260: Stachys (300), Phlomoides (150-170), Sideritis (140), Leucas (100), Phlomis (50-90), Pogostemon (80), Eremostachys (5-60). Esp. Europe and Africa to Asia, some cosmopolitan, but v. few Antipodean.

Synonymy: Melissaceae Berchtold & J. Presl, Stachydaceae Döll

And 10 genera unassigned, including Callicarpa (140: hairs branched/stellate; flowers polysymmetric, 4-5(-7)merous; stigma lobes relatively broad; fruit a drupe) and Tectona (4: tree; flowers polysymmetric).

• Lamiaceae are herbs, also shrubs and lianes, that may be recognised by their opposite, usually serrate leaves, more or less square stems, and monosymmetric flowers borne in often clearly cymose clusters. The plants are often aromatic. The often gynobasic style is apically bifid, the two lobes being sharply pointed, and the four ovules of the bicarpellate gynoecium are borne in uniovular compartments. The calyx is an integral part of the dispersal mechanism and is or more or less accrescent; it may be fleshy, but it is usually distinctively ridged and dry. Woody members often have strongly lenticillate twigs.

Evolution. Divergence & Distribution. Diversification in the Nepetoideae is estimated to have begun (63.7-)57.6, 52.3(-42.3) m.y.a., that within Mentheae itself (ca 2,300 species) about 10 m.y. later, ca 46 m.y.a. and perhaps in the Europe/Mediterranean area (Drew & Systma 2012a). Prostantheroideae are an Australian radiation of often shrubby and small-leaved plants growing in dry conditions. The ca 60 species of mints endemic to Hawaii represent a major diversification there. Although they are currently placed in three separate genera, they are all polypoids and are derived from west North American Stachys (Lamioideae); they probably represent but a single introduction to the islands (Lindqvist & Albert 2002; c.f. also the silversword alliance - Asteraceae).

Plant-Animal Interactions. The leaf beetle Phyllobrotica (Chrysomelidae) eats plants from Scutellarioideae, Lamioideae and Viticoideae, but not members of Nepetoideae - or Verbenaceae (Farrell & Mitter 1990). Larvae eat the roots, adults the above-ground parts, which they can decimate. Gall-forming midges of the Tephretidae-Tephrellini are found here (and on Acanthaceae and Verbenaceae: Korneyev 2005), as are gall-forming wasps of the Cynipidae-Cynipinae (Redfern 2011) and agromyzid dipteran leaf miners (Winkler et al. 2009).

Pollination Biology & Seed Dispersal. Species in the very big, primarily New World-Mediterranean Salvia often have only two unithecate anthers. The connective is expanded forming a lever arm that is involved in pollination which, as in other members of the family, is predominantly by large insects and birds (Claßen-Bockhoff et al. 2003: summary of early literature). Claßen-Bockhoff et al. (2004a, b) described stamen development in Salvia, and Walker and Sytsma (2007) suggested that the distinctive stamen with its lever arm might have evolved three times via a bithecate condition with the thecae at opposite ends of the connective; the common ancestor of all unithecate clades had two "ordinary" stamens. Taxa like the 4-stamened Melissa and Lepechinia are at the base of the tree that includes Salvia, and there are other taxa with 2-stamens immediately below the clades containing Salvia (Walker & Sytsma 2007); a number of other Mentheae, mostly New World, also have two stamens (Drew & Sytsma 2012a).

Reith et al. (2007) described details of pollination in Salvia pratensis, and Wester and Claßen-Bockhoff (2006, 2007, 2011) focus on pollination by birds. There are over 300 bird-pollinated species of Salvia, and these are largely restricted to the New World; flowers with an ornithophilous syndrome in fact encompass a remarkable amount of variation (Wester & Claßen-Bockhoff 2011). In low Mediterranean shrublands, megachilid bees are important pollinators of Lamiaceae (Petanidou & Ellis 1996).

Drew and Sytsma (2012b) discussed evolution of dioecy within the New World genus Lepechinia; it seems to have occurred at least three time there.

The calyx is an integral part of the dispersal mechanism of the disseminule, whether being brightly coloured and helping to attract frugivores, as in Clerodendrum, having hooked hairs or being itself hooked (Priva and some species of Salvia respectively), or forming a kind of catapult mechanism (Scutellaria) or a wing. Various kinds of calcium oxalate crystals are found in the sepals, perhaps protecting the nutlets against insect predators (Ryding 2010b). Myxocarpy, the nutlets producing mucilage and so adhering to their disperser, is common in Nepetoideae (Pammel 1892; Ryding 1992), while large genera like Lamium (Lamioideae) and Teucrium (Ajugoideae) have myrmecochorous nutlets (Lengyel et al. 2010).

Economic Importance. Chia, Salvia hispanica, has nutritious seeds very high in alpha-linolenic acid; it was a major crop in the Aztec empire (Ayerza & Coates 2005).

Chemistry, Morphology, etc. Trisaccharide esters of verbascoside are found in Lamiaceae alone, but disaccharides are found there as well as in Verbenaceae, Oleaceae and Orobanchaceae in particular (Mølgaard & Ravn 1988). For the distinctive allenic fatty acids, see Aitzetmüller et al. (1997).

Bailey (1956) noted the vegetative nodes of Lamiaceae and "Verbenaceae" might be two trace, one gap; the distribution of such nodes needs to be clarified; Marsden and Bailey (1955) had described such nodes in Clerodendron trichotomum in considerable detail.

For further discussion of other asterids with polymerous flowers like those of Symphorematoideae, see the [asterid I + asterid II] clade. The pollen grains of at least some Lamiaceae become very much flattened as they dry out (Halbritter & Hesse 2004). The ovules are described as being attached (just) to the false septae (Junell 1934); there is variation in ovule attachment within the family. Many Lamiaceae have a single layer of sclerenchymatous, bone-shaped cells on the inside of the mesocarp, others have thicker pericarp walls, and the cells are often crystalliferous. Pericarp anatomy of Verbenaceae is more complex (Ryding 1995). There may be differences in seed coat anatomy: the testa of at least some Verbenaceae has the hypodermal layer(s) thickened, while in Labiatae it is the exotestal cells that are thickened, particularly on their inner periclinal and anticlinal walls (Rohwer 1994a). Some Lamiaceae have asymmetric development of the endosperm such that the two haustoria come to lie very close to each other (Ram & Wadhi 1964 for references). This distinctive development may be restricted to Nepetoideae (further studies are needed), but it is also to be found in many Acanthaceae. Wunderlich (1967b) suggests that there is no endosperm in mature fruits of Nepetoideae.

For the ovules, which are vasularized, see Guignard (1893), for gynoecial morphology and embryology, see Junell (1934), for seedlings, see Vassilczenko (1947: cotyledons in Lamiaceae s. str. usu. cordate to hastate), for pollen, ovules and seeds, see Wunderlich (1967b), for variation in the proteinaceous inclusions in the nucleus, see Speta (1979), for fatty acids in the seed, see Badami and Patil (1981), for hairs and stomata, see Cantino (1990), for megagametophyte, see Rudall and Clark (1992), for betaine distribution, see Blunden et al. (1996: widespread, but what about Verbenaceae and other Lamiales?), for secondary metabolite evolution, see Grayer et al (2003) and Wink (2003), for leaf anatomy in Mentheae, see Moon et al. (2009a), for nutlet micromorphology there, see Moon et al. (2009b) and especially Ryding (2010a and references), for nutlets in Stachys, see Salmaki et al. (2009), for calyx anatomy, see Ryding (2010b), and for a comprehensive general treatment, see Harley et al. (2004). Moon et al. (2008a, b) surveyed pollen morphology especially of Salviinae and other Mentheae. For some floral development, see Endress (1999).

Phylogeny. Bootstrap support for the family is 100% (Wagstaff et al. 1998); however, although Congea (Symphorematoideae) may be sister to the rest, major relationships within the family are unclear. Bendiksby et al. (2011) recovered a set of relationships [Callicarpa [Prostantheroideae [[Symphorematoideae + Viticoideae] [[Cornutia, Gmelina, Tectona, Premna] [Nepetoideae [Garrettia [Scutellarioideae + Lamioideae]]]]]]], mostly with strong support, although sampling was mediocre and analyses of individual markers apparently yielded different topologies. These relationships differ from those in the classification above mainly in the position of Prostantheroideae and in the paraphyly of Viticoideae (c.f. Bramley et al. 2009).

For relationships in Viticoideae, see Bramley et al. (2009); Vitex is paraphyletic. For the phylogeny of the Australian-centered Chloantheae (Prostantheroideae), see Conn et al. (2009) and for that of Prosanthera itself, with the classical (Bentham!) morphologically-circumscribed infrageneric taxa not standing up too well, see Wilson et al. (2012). In Ajugoideae, Clerodendrum is being divided (Steane et al. 1999, 2004).

Within Nepetoideae, the large New World-centred Salvia, with over 900 species, is probably polyphyletic, Rosmarinus, and some other mostly quite small genera also being involved (Walker et al. 2004; Walker & Sytsma 2007; Moon et al. 2010) - alas for "Scarborough fair". Moon et al. (2010) and Drew and Systma (2012a) circumscribed major clades within Mentheae, but the tribe is so big that sampling will have to be much improved to get at generic limits, although these are evidently suspect. Major changes in our ideas of relationships in Menthineae and in the limits of the subtribe are needed; species of Clinopodium are scattered through much of the tree (Bräuchler et al. 2010; Drew & Sytsma 2011). Drew and Sytsma (2011, 2012b) explored the limits and relationships of Lepechinia. Nepetoideae also include the large tribe Ocimeae which has synthecous, dorsifixed anthers (Paton et al. 2004). Ocimeae in turn include the large genus Hyptis; the other genera of Hyptinae are embedded in a paraphyletic Hyptis (Pastore et al. 2011); however, there is little resolution along the backbone of the tree, so major clade limits there are unclear.

Species of Lamioideae and Scutellarioideae, but not Nepetoideae, tend to have relatively massive ammounts of fibrous tissue associated with the veins in the calyx, e.g. with the tertiary veins (Ryding 2007). For phylogenetic relationships in Lamioideae, see Wagstaff et al. (1995), Scheen et al. (2010), who found that Cymaria might be sister to the rest of the subfamily, and Bendiksby et al. (2011) who added Acrymia to Cymaria, although support for the sister group position of the combined clade was low. For relationships of the ca 60 species of lamioid mints endemic to Hawaii, see Lindqvist and Albert (2002); recognition of the three genera in which they are placed makes Stachys paraphyletic (see also Roy & Lindqvist 2012), but this aside, the limits of Stachys are difficult to determine (see also Scheen et al. 2010; Bendiksby et al. 2011). Leucas is also highly paraphyletic (e.g. Scheen & Albert 2009), while relationships within Phlomidae have been evaluated by Mathiesen et al. (2011) and Salmaki et al. (2012). See Scheen et al. (2007) for relationships around Physostegia.

Wenchengia has spiral leaves and a more or less terminal style and it was initially unclear where it should be placed (Cantino & Abu-Asab 1993). However, it is strongly supported as sister to other Scutellarioideae in the study by Li et al. (2012), and this is where it should be placed.

Classification. The classification here is based on that of Harley et al. (2004); see Cantino and Sanders (1986) for the distinctions between the two biggest subfamilies, Lamioideae and Nepetoideae. Note that the circumscription of Viticoideae is more narrowly drawn than in Cantino et al. (1992), some genera included there not being assigned to subfamilies here. For tribal limits in Lamioideae, see Scheen et al. (2010) and Bendiksby et al. (2011). In general, generic limits need attention. Thus in both Stachys and Leucas characters associated with pollination prove unreliable indicators of clades (Scheen et al. 2010), and Clerodendrum has been dismembered (Steane & Mabberley 1998; Yuan et al. 2010); Harley and Pastore (2012) reworked generic limits in Hyptidinae. How Salvia is to be treated presents a challenge (Walker et al. 2006; Walker & Sytsma 2007). There are many other places where generic/clade rearrangements are to be expected, as in Chloantheae (Prostantheroideae: Conn et al. 2009). All the floral characters used to distinguish genera in Menthineae turn out to be homoplastic, and Clinopodium in particular is polyphyletic (Bräuchler et al. 2010).

Previous Relationships. Lamiaceae and Boraginaceae have always been considered distinct, but their similar gynobasic styles and fruits with four separate nutlets (and also some chemistry) have invited comparisons between the two, and they were often placed fairly close to each other (e.g. Cronquist 1981, where both are in Lamiales). However, there are numerous differences (chemistry, leaf insertion, floral symmetry, ovule morphology, etc.) between the two, and the radicle in Boraginaceae points upwards in fruit while in Lamiaceae it points downwards.

As their alternative name Labiatae implies, Lamiaceae have always been considered as an "eminently natural" family, being immediately recognisable because of their herbaceous habit, paired, serrate leaves, square stems, monosymmetric flowers, gynobasic style, and four nutlets. However, the gynobasic style and the four nutlets have evolved more than once (Cantino 1992a), and a considerable number of ex-Verbenaceae must now be included in Lamiaceae (Junell 1934; Cantino et al. 1992a, b: see Verbenaceae for further discussion).

[Mazaceae [Phrymaceae [Paulowniaceae + Orobanchaceae]]] : inflorescence racemose; (protein crystal stacks in nucleus).

Chemistry, Morphology, etc. Note that there may be chemical differences within Phrymaceae s.l., thus Mazus has iridoids while Mimulus does not (Hegnauer & Kooiman 1978). However, sampling is poor - and needs to be expanded. For nuclear protein crystals, see Albach et al. (2009).

Phylogeny. There is still some doubt as to relationships in this clade, in particular, whether genera like Mazus are to be included in a broadly-circumscribed Phrymaceae, or not (Oxelman et al. 2005; Tank et al. 2006). Xia et al. (2009), Albach et al. (2009), Schäferhoff et al. (2010) and Fischer et al. (2012) have all found support for the paraphyly of Phrymaceae, with Mazus and Lancea forming a clade separate from that containing the rest of the family (see also Nie et al. 2006), so dismemberment is in order. The clades are kept separate here.

MAZACEAE Reveal   Back to Lamiales

Annual or perennial herbs; iridoids +; cork?; vessel elements?; pericyclic fibres 0; leaves opposite (spiral), margins toothed; flowers with very well developed lower lip; anther thecae divergent, staminode 0; stigma sensitive; integument 5-6 cells across; (fruit indehiscent); n = 19.

3[list]/33: Mazus (30). Central Asia and North China to the Antipodes, rather scattered, but esp. China (map: from Barker 1991; AgroAtlas viii.2012 - India, Malesia esp. inaccurate).

Chemistry, Morphology, etc. Mazus has 1:1 nodes and lacks a pericyclic sheath. For more information, see under Phrymaceae, but little is known about this clade.

Phylogeny. Fischer et al. (2012) found that the monotypic Central Asian Dodartia, usually included in Phrymaceae, was sister to Mazus (support good).

Classification. Species limits in Mazus need attention.

[Phrymaceae [Paulowniaceae + Orobanchaceae]]: ?

PHRYMACEAE Schauer, nom. cons.   Back to Lamiales

Annual or perennial herbs (woody); iridoids 0 (?+); cork?; vessel elements?; lamina (punctate), margins toothed (entire); (inflorescence fasciculate; flowers single); K tubular, toothed, subplicate-ribbed (4-, 3-lobed), (C polysymmetric; 2 + 0 - Mimulus douglasii); A (2), anthers subreniform, thecae confluent; (pollen trinculeate), (6-8-colpate; each colpus with 2 orae; spiraperturate; tricolpate); nectary +/0; (fertile carpel 1), (placentation parietal, near-basal), stigma broadly 2-lobed (1-lobed; shortly 2-fid), sensitive (not); ovules (1-)many/carpel, straight, integument 3-7 cells across; (fruit indehiscent), K persistent; (seeds with pedestals); endosperm +/almost 0, cotyledons convolute; n = 7-12, 14-16, 22, etc.

13[list]/188: Erythranthe (111), Diplacus (46). ± World-wide, esp. temperate and W. North America and Australia, but few humid tropics (map: from Meusel et al. 1978; Barker 1982; Hong 1983, 1993; India-Southeast Asia-Antipodes very inaccurate.). [Photos - Collection, Mimulus Flower.]

Evolution. Divergence & Distribution. Phryma diverged from other Phrymaceae 52.5-28 m.y.a. (Nie et al. 2006), although its well-known East Asian - E. North American disjunction is much more recent, a mere ca 6-2 m.y.a..

Genes & Genomes. Despite extensive polyploidy and aneuploidy (both happening 10+ times) in North American Mimulus, neither seems to have given rise to major clades there (Beardsley et al. 2004).

Chemistry, Morphology, etc. Whipple (1972) described the nodes of Phryma as having three traces coming from a single gap; the ovules were described as being apotropous and hemitropous.

For pollen, see Argue (1980, 1981) and Chadwell et al. (1992), for Phrymaceae s. str., see Whipple (1972), Venkata Ramana et al. (2000: embryology), and Cantino (2004: general), for other genera included here, see Fischer (2004b: as Scrophulariaceae p. pte). For floral development in Mazus, see Rawat et al. (1988).

Phylogeny. Phryma and Mimulus and its relatives, makes up this unexpected clade (Beardsley & Olmstead 2000, esp. 2002; Beardsley et al. 2001, 2004; Beardsley & Barker 2004; Nie et al. 2006).

• Phryma has opposite, serrate leaves and spicate inflorescences bearing small, monosymmetric flowers. The calyx persists in the secund fruit, the three adaxial members forming recurved spines, and the fruit has but a single seed (only one carpel is fertile) - a very derived morphology.

Classification. For a conspectus of the family, see Barker et al. (2012); Mimulus had to be dismembered. For a monograph of Mimulus old style, species of which are the subjects of many evolutionary studies, see Grant (1924) and Thompson (2005).

Previous Relationships. Phryma was previously placed in a monotypic family on account of its distinctive morphology, or allied with Verbenaceae. Mimulus and other genera were included in Scrophulariaceae s.l.

Botanical Trivia. The mostly Australian Glossostigma is scarcely bigger than Lemna, while small plants of Mimulus jepsonii may consist only of cotyledons, a pair of foliage leaves, and a flower (T. Livschultz, pers. comm.).

[Paulowniaceae + Orobanchaceae]: ?

PAULOWNIACEAE Nakai   Back to Lamiales

Trees, deciduous; cork cambium outer cortical; nodes 1:1; hairs uniseriate-branched; petiolar bundle annular; lamina margins entire; inflorescence branched, ultimately cymose; flowers large; K ± valvate, deeply lobed, space between K and C [water calyx], C hairs uniseriate with tapering terminal cell; anther thecae head-to-head, endothecium massive, extending across connective, staminode 0; nectary vascularized; placentae protruding, style hollow, head expanded or not, stigma punctate, hollow; seed pedestals +, seeds with several sinuous wings; exotesta cells broad, with complex reticulate thickenings; endosperm +; n = 19, 20.

1/6. (Warm) temperate East Asia (map: from Hu 1959). [Photo - Flower]

• Paulowniaceae are deciduous trees that may be recognised by their large, entire, opposite leaves and terminal inflorescences with large, monosymmetric flowers; the calyx is densely covered with brown indumentum.

Chemistry, Morphology, etc. The phylogenetic significance of the wood anatomical differences between Catalpa (Bignoniaceae) and Paulownia (Dos Santos & Miller 1993) is unclear. Erbar and Gülden (2011) noted that the terminal flowers of an inflorescence might be 5-merous and have five stamens. The ad- -> abaxial direction of development of members of the calyx and the corolla whorls is unusual in Lamiales (Erbar & Gülden 2011), although observations are limited.

For additional information, see Schilling et al (1982: verbascoside, etc.) and Fischer (2004b: as Scrophulariaceae; Wightia, etc., are in the same immediate group but a separate tribe).

Phylogeny. There is moderate support for a position sister to Lamiaceae (Olmstead et al. 2000), but rather more for a position sister to Orobanchaceae (Olmstead et al. 2001; Mueller et al. 2001; Hilu et al. 2003; Müller et al. 2004: Wortley et al. 2005a [80% bootstrap]), or with Phrymaceae interpolated between them and Orobanchaceae (some analyses in Albach et al. 2009). .

Previous Relationships. Paulownia is superficially like Catalpa (Bignoniaceae) and both have been shuttled back and forth between "Scrophulariaceae" and Bignoniaceae. Paulownia has endosperm and lacks the distinctive ovary and seed anatomy of Bignoniaceae (Armstrong 1985; Manning 2000; Lersten et al. 2002); on the other hand, Catalpa is definitely to be included in Bignoniaceae.

OROBANCHACEAE Ventenat, nom. cons.   Back to Lamiales

Many turn black on drying; (mannitol +), cork?; head of glandular hairs lacking vertical partitions; lamina margins often toothed to deeply lobed; C with abaxial-median or abaxial-lateral lobes outside others [quincuncial, descending cochlear] in bud; placentation parietal, (axile), placentae paired stipitate; seed with exotestal cells variously thickened on the inner walls.

99[list]/2060. World wide, but especially N. (warm) temperate and Africa-Madagascar.

1. [Rehmannia + Trianeophora]

Leaves spiral; bracts ± foliaceous, (bracteoles 0); (staminode +); stigma sensitive; n = ?

2/7. China (map: from 2011, in part).

[Lindenbergieae [Cymbarieae [Orobancheae [Brandisia [Rhinantheae [Buchnereae + Pedicularidae]]]]]]: stomata do not close; placentation parietal.

2. Lindenbergieae T. Yamazaki

Bracts ± leaf-like, bracteoles usu. 0; A thecae on connective arms; testa usu. with hook-shaped thickenings adnate to surface; n = 16.

1/12. N.E. Africa to N. Philipines (map: see Hjertson 1995).

[Cymbarieae [Orobancheae [Brandisia [Rhinantheae [Buchnereae + Pedicularidae]]]]]: ?

Hemiparasitic herbs (shrubs); ectomycorrhizae 0; orobanchin +, little oxalate accumulation, 6- and/or 8-hydroxylated flavone glycosides 0; leaves spiral to opposite; (K ± free), C (tube development intermediate), (aestivation imbricate); staminode 0 (1), anther thecae parallel or ± confluent sagittate to inverted U-shaped, often hairy, with tails or basal awns, (thecae unequal), (tapetum amoeboid); pollen often starchy, commonly tricolpate, surface retipilate, (polyporate); ([G 5]), (placentation axile), (placentae [2, bilobed] 4 [-6]), stigma clavate to capitate; ovule (>1/carpel), integument (2-)4-12 cells across; (antipodal cells persistent); capsule loculicidal to septicidal, (indehiscent); (seed pedestals +); (seed with elaiosomes), (cells of seed wings with reticulate thickenings on radial walls), (cells of layers other than the exotesta thickened and lignified); endosperm +, (walls thickened; reserves starch; mannose-rich polysaccharides; 0); (perisperm +, 1-layered), (embryo minute, undifferentiated); (germination via germination tube).

96/2040. World wide, but especially N. (warm) temperate and Africa-Madagascar (map: from van Steenis & van Balgooy 1966; Hultén 1971; Meusel et al. 1978; Hong 1983). [Photo - Plant, Collection.]

3. Cymbarieae D. Don

5/16. E. North America (1 sp.), Eurasia. n= 8.

[Orobancheae [Brandisia [Rhinantheae [Buchnereae + Pedicularidae]]]]: ?

4. Orobancheae Lamarck & de Candolle

12/180: Orobanche (150). North temperate, North Africa. Holoparasitic; (A free from C - Eremitilla); n =

[Brandisia [Rhinantheae [Buchnereae + Pedicularidae]]]: ?

5. Brandisia J. D. Hooker & Thomson

Shrubs to lianas; hairs stellate; anther thecae long-cilate.

1/13. Burma to China.

[Rhinantheae [Buchnereae + Pedicularidae]]: ?

6. Rhinantheae Lamarck & de Candolle

18/540: Euphrasia (170-350), Bartsia (50), Rhinanthus (45). ± Worldwide, but esp. Eurasian. (holoparasitic); n = 9-14.

[Buchnereae + Pedicularidae]: ?

7. Buchnereae Bentham

16/350: Buchnera (100), Alectra (40), Harveya (40), Sopubia (40). Tropics, inc. Australia. (holoparasitic); (axillary 3-flowered cymes); n = 12, 14, 19+

8. Pedicularidae Duby

16/857: Pedicularis (600-?800), Castilleja (160-200), Agalinis (45). Mostly northern hemisphere, some to South America and the Caribean. (anther thecae unequal or single); n = 8, 11-15, etc.

• Orobanchaceae are herbs, rarely shrubs, mostly with racemose inflorescences. In the flower, the abaxial lobes of the corolla are outside the others in bud. Nearly all members of the family have a holo- or hemiparasitic life-style. Some Plantaginaceae have a similar corolla aestivation, but they are autotrophic.

Evolution. Divergence & Distribution. Orobanchaceae may be some 50-40 m.y. old (Wolfe et al. 2005), and it has been suggested that holoparasites with minute dust seeds - which may have evolved twice here - was driven by the expansion of grasslands in the middle of the Tertiary (Eriksson & Kainulainen 2011).

Orobanchaceae are unusual in that the non-parasitic Lindenbergia is much less diverse than its sister group, which is parasitic, a size relationship that is the reverse of that normal in parasitic:non-parasitic sister clades, however, most Orobanchaceae are only hemiparasitic (Hardy & Cook 2012).

Euphrasia has a North Temperate - circum-Pacific distribution and is basically bipolar; much dispersal seems to have been involved in attaining this range (Gussarova et al. 2008). Diversification within the large genus Castilleja is becoming better understood. There is a speciose West North American/Central/South American perennial clade - some 120 species - derived apparently quite recently from an annual ancestor; polyploidy is common in the perennials, but not in the annuals (Tank & Olmstead 2008, 2009). Annuals have dispersed more than once to South America (Tank & Olmstead 2009).

Plant-Animal Interactions. Agromyzid dipteran leaf miners have diversified on the hemiparasitic Orobanchaceae (Winkler et al. 2009), and larvae of Nymphalinae-Melitaeini butterflies are commonly found on them (also on Plantaginaceae, but not on Scrophulariaceae: Wahlberg 2001).

Ecology & Physiology. Hemiparasitism appears to have evolved once (McNeal et al. 2013), while holoparasites have evolved from hemiparasites perhaps three times (dePamphilis et al. 1997; Nickrent et al. 1998; Young et al. 1999; Schneeweiss et al. 2004a; Bennett & Mathews 2006; esp. McNeal et al. 2013). However, the distinction between the two life styles is not sharp. Species like Striga linearifolia and Alectra sessiliflora are close to being holoparasitic, while Tozzia alpina may live underground for a decade or so before producing above-ground shoots that are photosynthetic and fertile (McNeal et al. 2013). Interestingly, the hemiparasitic Harveya obtusifolia is well embedded in a holoparasitic clade of the genus; whether there has been reversion in habit, or yet more independent acquisitions of the holoparasitic habit in that part of the family is unclear (Morawetz & Randle 2009; species not included by McNeal et al. 2013).

Some Orobanchaceae, particularly the hemiparasitic taxa with chlorophyll, take up largely water, nitrogen, etc., from their hosts, others take up organic material as well; iridoid glucosides, pyrrolizidine and quinolizidine alkaloids, etc., may also move from host to parasite (e.g. Adler & Wink 2001; Hibberd & Jaeschke 2001; Shen et al. 2005 [also host selection]; Rasmussen et al. 2006 and references). Alder (2000, 2002, 2003) found a complex relationship between host and parasite, the annual Castilleja indivisa. Association with Lupinus in particular led to a decrease in herbivores eating the parasite (sometimes), more visitors by pollinators, increased seed set, etc., when compared with other hosts. These effects were mediated by the movement both of alkaloids (?anti herbivore?) and nitrogenous compounds (increase in growth s.l.) from the lupin to the parasite. Movement may also be in the other direction. Some of the severe effects on the host caused by the parasite may be due in part to the breakdown of the iridoid glucoside of the parasite and the release of the cytotoxic iridoid aglucone, perhaps caused by the host's ß-glucosidases, themselves common because they are involved in the host's cyanogenic defence pathway (Rank et al. 2004). Horizontal nuclear gene transfer from Sorghum and its relatives to Striga (but not Orobanche) has been demonstrated, the transferred genes functioning in the nucleus of the latter (Yoshida et al. 2010). For other information on parasitism in the family, see Irving and Cameron (2009 and references).

There are several different types of haustoria in Orobanchaceae, some forming a connection with xylem only, others with both xylem and phloem; nevertheless, haustoria may have but a single origin (Fischer 2004b for a summary). Stomata in this family seem to be perpetually open (Stewart & Press 1990; Smith & Stewart 1990), even in the apparently autotropic Lindenbergia, sister to most other Orobanchaceae; the situation in Rehmannia and relatives (see below) is unknown. The stomata remain open despite the presence of large amounts of abscisic acid, which normally would be expected to result in stomatal closure (Jiang et al. 2010; other papers in Folia Geobotanica 45(4). 2010). Perpetually-open stomata are common in hemiparasitic plants in general because they increase the transpiration flow in the parasite so faciltating movement of water, nutrients, etc., from the host to the parasite (e.g. Phoenix & Press 2005).

For the role of strigolactones, exuded from host roots, in stimulating germination of seeds of some species of Orobanchaceae, see Tsuchiya and McCourt (2009) and Akiyama et al. (2010 and references). There are recent suggestions that germination is in part controlled by maternal genes is persistent maternal (nucellar) tissue (Plakhine et al. 2012).

The effects of hemiparasitic Orobanchaceae on the general community can be considerable. They may increase overall diversity if they parasitize dominant species, as in some grasslands, or decrease it, if they attack less common species. They also affect the distribution of nutrients in communities such as those in the Arctic, increasing nutrient cycling. Interactions are complex: the litter of the hemiparasite is relatively rich in nutrients, nutrients not being resorbed as the plant senesces, and it decomposes more rapidly than the litter of other species in the community; the ecological effects of the litter can counteract those of parasitism (Phoenix & Press 2005; Watson 2009; Fisher et al. 2013).

Pollination Biology & Seed Dispersal. Pedicularis is particularly common in montane-alpine areas in the Northern Hemisphere, and although there are many species, actual species numbers are uncertain (Mill 2001). Variation in floral morphology in the genus is very great, yet pollination is predominantly by bumble bees (Macior 1982). Some species have a corolla tube ca 10 cm long or more, or there may be an asymmetric, proboscis-like extension of the upper lip (the galea) that is formed from the two adaxial corolla members (e.g. Li 1951 and references). Some 600 species in the Sino-Himalayan region may be pollinated by bumblebees, of which over fifty species are known from the Hengduan region of China alone (Williams et al. 2009). Species with red, long-tubed flowers and growing at higher elevations may lack nectar and be pollinated by pollen-collecting bumble bees, which raises the question of the function of these very long tubes - effectively they function as pedicels, the plants not having long inflorescence axes (Huang & Fenster 2007). Character displacement, in which sympatric taxa differ more than would be expected, so reducing the chances of pollen being deposited on the wrong stigma (pollen interference), seems to be one component in the generation of the exceptional diversity of the genus in the Hengduan Mountains (Eaton et al. 2012). For comments on the floral evolution of the genus, see Macior (1982, 1984) and Ree (2005a); pollen morphology - there is quite extensive variation - is linked with corolla morphology and pollinator type (Hong Wang et al. 2009a).

For myrmecochory in seeds of Melampyrum and Pedicularis) in particular, see Lengyel et al. (2009, 2010). Eriksson and Kainulainen (2011) discuss the distinctive dust seeds of many parasitic Orobanchaceae (also in Ericaceae-Monotropoideae, myco-heterotrophic taxa in general, etc.); Lathraea squamaria, parasitic on Corylus, has relatively large seeds, perhaps connected with the need of the seedling to reach the relatively deep roots of their future host.

Genes & Genomes. The chloroplast genome of the holoparasitic members is small, but a few genes are still functional; the IR has been lost more than once (Wolfe et al. 1992; Jansen & Ruhlman 2012). For the evolution of nuclear genome size in the family, see Weiss-Schneewiess et al. (2005); genome size is reduced after polyploidization. Unlike chloroplast genomes, nuclear genomes of holopoarasitic taxa are much larger - to almost 10x - than that of the free-living Lindenbergia (the hemiparasite Schwalbea is only slightly larger than the latter), and in Orobanche with many more repetitive DNA clusters (Piednoël et al. 2012; see Gruner et al. 2010 for a facilitating factor - rootlessness).

For chromosome numbers and karyotype evolution in Orobanche and relatives, see Schneeweiss et al. (2004c).

Economic Importance. A number of Orobanchaceae, e.g. Striga and Alectra species of the tropical clade (see below), are very serious parasites primarily on legume and grain crops in warmer and drier areas and especially in sub-Saharan Africa, where they are still spreading. Striga parasitizes monocots, affecting ca 40% of the cereal producing areas there, causing average losses in yield of 30-90%, especially on poorer soils. A single plant of Striga can produce up to 100,000 seeds which can remain viable for about 20 years (Scholes & Press 2008; see also Ejeta & Gressel 2007; Yoshida & Shirasu 2009; Irving & Cameron 2009). Alectra vogelii can cause the complete loss of legume crops it infects (Morawetz & Wolfe 2009). Orobanche parasitizes eudicot crops in more or less temperate parts of the world.

Chemistry, Morphology, etc. Orobanchaceae have orobanchin, a phenylpropanoid ester of caffeic acid, and silicic acid, and their iridoids are derived from the aucubin pathway (Thieret 1971; Rank et al. 2004); c.f. Gesneriaceae. For seed fatty acids in Orobanche, see (Velasco et al. 2000).

Fischer (2004b) notes that a collar-like base of the corolla tube persists after the rest has fallen off - is this a family character? Corolla aestivation is interesting in this clade. The abaxial-lateral pair of corolla lobes commonly envelops the adaxial-lateral lobes, while in Euphrasia and its relatives the abaxial lobe also envelops this latter pair of lobes - both forms of quincuncial aestivation; in a number of other Orobanchaceae, the abaxial lobe envelops all other lobes, i.e. ascending cochleate aestivation (Armstrong & Douglas 1989). For floral development, see Armstrong and Douglas (1989), Endress (1999). Greilhuber (1974) observed endomitotic polyploidization in the cells of the inner tapetum in some genera - but not in Pedicularis, Melampyrum, and Plantaginaceae.

The recently-described Eremitilla is very distinctive morphologically, i.a. the stamens are free from the corolla tube and the anther thecae are more or less embedded in the expanded filament apex (Yatskievych & Jiménez 2009).

For some literature on pollination, see Kampny (1995: as Scrophulariaceae), for ovules of Cyclocheilon, etc., see Junell (1934), for embryology, see Tiagi (1963) and Arekal (1963), for seed morphology, see Musselman and Mann (1976) and Joel et al. (2012), for pollen, see Minkin and Eshbaugh (1989) and Lu et al. (2007), for corolla aestivation, see Eichler (1875) and Armstrong and Douglas (1989), for floral development, see Canne-Hilliker (1987), for a general treatment, see Terekhin and Nikitcheva (1981) and Fischer (2004b: as Scrophulariaceae p. pte). Demissew (2004) provides a treatment of Cyclocheilaceae and Harley (2004) one of Nesogenaceae. See the Parasitic Plants website (Nickrent 1998 onwards) and also Heide-Jørgensen (2008) for general information.

Phylogeny. For the delimitation and composition of the family, see Young et al. (1999), Wolfe et al. (2005), Bennett and Mathews (2006), etc. In a rather restricted phylogenetic analysis, Rehmannia had been associated with Oreosolen (Albach et al. 2007), in Scrophulariaceae s. str. (Oxelman et al. 2005), but this may be a rooting problem. In a rather more extended study, Rehmannia was sister to Orobanchaceae, while Oreosolen indeed linked with Verbascum and relatives, forming part of a north temperate group in Scrophulariaceae (Jensen et al. 2008b). In a tree found by Oxelman et al. (2005), Rehmannia linked very weakly with Phryma, Paulownia, Mazus and Lancea, as well as with genera of Orobanchaceae.

Recent work indeed suggests that Rehmannia, ex Gesneriaceae and a small genus of ca 6 species from China and Korea, and the related Trianeophora, with two to three species from China, are together sister to the rest of the family - i.e. Lindenbergia and the rest (Xia et al. 2009). Albach et al. (2007) recorded the presence of iridoids in Rehmannia, although these are at best very uncommon in Gesneriaceae, and also at least some mannitol, a polyol not occurring in Scrophulariaceae s. str. but found i.a. in some Orobanchaceae, while in a more extended study Xia et al. (2009) placed both Rehmannia and Trianeophora in a strongly supported clade sister to Orobanchaceae (see also Albach et al. 2009; Fischer et al. 2012: Lindenbergia quite well supported as sister to remaining Orobanchaceae), so they are included here. Rehmannia is not known to be hemiparasitic; it has a racemose inflorescence, its flowers lack bracteoles, the two abaxial-lateral corolla lobes are outside the others, as is common in Orobanchaceae, and its stigma lobes are sensitive. Trianeophora has bracteoles, it may have a staminode, but its floral aestivation is similar, if quite variable (Wang & Wang 2005: close to Digitalis). Phytochemistry also links Triaenophora closely with Rehmannia (Jensen et al. 2008b). Rehmannia has 1:3 nodes and petioles with arcuate + wing bundles, both very common in Lamiales (pers. obs.).

Lindenbergia may be sister to the rest of the family (e.g. Wolfe et al. 2005; Albach et al. 2009, but sampling limited) or linking more particularly with a small group of parasitic taxa (Bennett & Mathews 2006: support weak); recent work places it sister to the rest with overall rather strong support (McNeal et al. 2013). Lindenbergia is autotrophic (Hjertsen 1995) and has tricolporate pollen rather like that common in Lamiales, while the pollen of many other Orobanchaceae is tricolpate and retipilate (Minkin & Eshbaugh 1989; Bennett & Mathews 2006).

Other than that, one summary of relationships is [holoparasitic clade [Castilleja, Pedicularis, etc. [Euphrasia, Rhinanthus, etc. + tropical clade]]] (Bennett & Mathews 2006). R. G. Olmstead (pers. comm. 2003) noted that the inclusion in this clade of Nesogenes (Nesogenaceae) and Cyclocheilon and Asepalum (Cyclocheilaceae), all poorly known, was likely (see also B. Bremer et al. 2002 for Cyclocheilon). There was strong support for Nesogenes (the only taxon of this group included) being sister to the shrubby Radamea (Bennett & Mathews 2006; McNeal et al. 2013), and these two genera belonged to a strongly supported tropical clade relationships between whose members were then poorly known (Bennett & Mathews 2006). In a more comprehensive analysis, ex Cyclocheilaceae and Nesogenaceae are sister to this tropical clade, within which there was some resolution of relationships (Morawetz & Randle 2009, esp. Morawetz et al. 2010); Nesogenes was sister to Graderia and in a clade that includes Striga (Morawetz et al. 2010; see also Fischer et al. 2012). The woody liane Brandisia, but not Wightia with which it has been linked, is also to be included, but its position is unstable and it is an isolated genus (Bennett & Mathews 2006; esp. McNeal et al. 2013).

Inclusion of Nesogenes, and in particular Cyclocheilon and Asepalum considerably increases the morphological diversity of Orobanchaceae. Cyclocheilon and Asepalum lack much in the way of a calyx, the calyx being at most a minute rim, but have large bracteoles enveloping the flower bud (c.f. Acanthaceae-Nelsonioideae). They are also shrubs with red roots [?always]; the flowers are solitary; the exine is thickened near the apertures; the placentation is axile or parietal, with 1-5 apotropous ovules/carpel, endothelium?, the funicles are long and the stigma is lingulate. The fruit is a capsule or schizocarp; there is no endosperm. Although Harley (2004) notes similarities between the pollen of Cyclocheilaceae, Nesogenaceae (both have tricolpate pollen, that of Nesogenes is perhaps also pilate) and Orobanchaceae, nothing is known of stomatal closure and parasitism in these putative Orobanchaceae. There are other shrubby orobanchs, including Brandisia (see above). In a study focussing on Acanthaceae, McDade et al. (2012) found a fascinating set of relationships, [Rehmannia [Lindenbergia [Cyclocheilon + the rest]]], although support for the position of Cyclocheilon was not that strong. Clarification of these relationships and of the ecology of these genera is needed to clarify our understanding of the evolution of parasitism here.

A recent study that included ca 2/3 the genera and used both nuclear and plastid genes yielded a rather strongly supported phylogeny that is the basis for the groupings above, although Lindenbergia was not basal in the PHYB + PHYA analyses; the position of Brandisia was unclear (McNeal et al. 2013). For a re-evaluation of relationships of genera in the old Rhinantheae, see Tesitel et al. (2010 - also other papers in Folia Geobotanica 45(4). 2010); Scheunert et al. (2012) suggest that Rhinanthus itself is not monophyletic (se also Bennett & Mathews 2006). For a phylogeny of Pedicularis, see Ree (2005), for that of Euphrasia, see Gussarova et al. (2008), of Orobanche and relatives, see Schneeweiss et al. (2004a, c) and Park et al. (2008), and of Castilleja, see Tank and Olmstead (2008, 2009). For further details of relationships, see dePamphilis (1995) and Olmstead and Reeves (1995). Tank et al. (2006) summarize ideas on relationships within the family.

Classification. See Hjertsen (1995) for a monograph of Lindenbergia. Tank et al. (2009) provide a phylogenetic classification of Castillejinae, while McNeal et al. (2013) provide a tribal classification for the whole family that is followed here - Cyclocheilaceae (Cyclocheilon and Asepalum) were absentees. Although a number of other genera were not sampled in this study, they are small and are unlikely to affect species numbers more than marginally. Thus 12 genera from the old Buchnereae (Fischer 2003) were not examined, but they include a mere 25 species. Generic numbers are rather notional.

Previous Relationships. Hemiparasitic genera like Euphrasia and Pedicularis used to be considered intermediates between holoparasitic Orobanchaceae and Scrophulariaceae s.l. (e.g. Boeshore 1920). Rehmannia has often been linked with Titanotrichum and included in Gesneriaceae (Xia et al. 2009 for references).

Botanical Trivia. The purple-flowered Lathraea clandestina is one of the few parasitic plants cultivated for its horticultural merit.

Thanks. To David Tank for useful comments; Robert Mill also caught a number of mistakes around here.

Synonymy: Aeginetiaceae Livera, Buchneraceae Lilja, Cyclocheilaceae Marais, Euphrasiaceae Martynov, Lindenbergiaceae Doweld, Melampyraceae Hooker & Lindley, Nesogenaceae Marais, Pedicularidaceae Jussieu, Phelypaeaceae Horaninow, Rehmanniaceae Reveal, Rhinanthaceae Ventenat

[[Thomandersiaceae + Verbenaceae], Pedaliaceae, [Schlegeliaceae + Martyniaceae], Bignoniaceae, Acanthaceae, Lentibulariaceae]: ?

[Thomandersiaceae + Verbenaceae]: inflorescence racemose; staminode +; 3³ ovules/carpel; endosperm 0.

THOMANDERSIACEAE Sreemadhavan   Back to Lamiales

Shrub or small tree; 2-indolinone alkaloids +; phloem stratified; pericyclic fibres ?short, massively thickened; nodes 1:3; petiole bundles forming a ring or incurved C-shaped; stomata anisocytic; leaves ± heterophyllous, (margins deeply lobed), with flat glands abaxially, petiole swollen apically and basally; K with nectaries on the outside; pollen 5-6-colpate; nectary vascularized by carpellary traces; gynoecial vasculature 8-shaped; ovules 1-3/carpel, hemianatropous; capsule loculicidal, K accrescent; seed with cup-shaped expansion of funicle, hilum rather large; seed coat with ascending-imbricate scales or warts, exotesta palisade, not lignified, up to 6 layers of cells in the warts; embryo strongly curved, cotyledons thin-foliaceous, complexly folded; n = ?.

1/6. W. and C. Africa (map: from Wortley et al. 2007a).

• Thomandersiaceae are woody plants with opposite, usually entire leaves the lower surface of which often have flat, black-drying glands; the inflorescence is a raceme of rather small flowers and there are extrafloral nectaries on the outside of the calyx. The capsular fruits are distinctive with their few seeds each sitting on a thin, cup-shaped expansion of the funicle; the surface of the seed is warty or scaly, the hilum is large, and the embryos are strongly curved.

Chemistry, Morphology, etc. The flat glands mentioned above are dark-drying, rounded, and up to 3 mm across, and are quite different from the lamialean glandular hairs with their radially-segmented heads which also often occur on the abaxial surface of the lamina. Despite the presence of structures sometimes described as jaculators, fruit dehiscence is not explosive, unlike Acanthaceae; the seed, with its prominent hilum, sits in a thin, cup-like expansion of the funicle. Inside the seed coat described above is a layer of much crushed cells, in turn above a layer of a few less crushed cells; the outer layer of the endosperm has a distinct outer periclinal cell wall. I am not sure exactly how the cotyledons are folded. Study of the development of the ovule, embryo, and endosperm and of seed anatomy might well be profitable.

For alkaloids, see Ngadjul et al. (1995), and for general details, see Wortley et al. (2005a and especially 2007a). Thomandersia hensii: de Wilde & Jongkind 9400, seed, stem; Ngok Bamak et al. 1263, leaf; T. laurifolia: Dibata 30, seed; Thomandersia sp.: Reitsma et al. 1819, leaf, stem.

Phylogeny. Thomandersia may also go somewhere near Schlegeliaceae, from tropical America. Characters like the vasculature of the floral nectary and petiole, also the nectaries on the outside of the calyx, link it with that family, however, support for any Thomandersiaceae-Schlegeliaceae association is currently weak (Wortley et al. 2007a).

Previous Relationships. Thomandersia was previously usually included in Acanthaceae; aside from its rather different fruits, it does not have swollen nodes, cystoliths, etc.

VERBENACEAE Jaume Saint-Hilaire, nom. cons.   Back to Lamiales

Vines, shrubs, or trees (herbs); 4-carboxy-iridoids +; (pits vestured); petiole bundles arcuate (also medullary, associated with median bundle); needle crystals common; stomata diacytic, (anomocytic); stems often square; eglandular hairs unicellular; lamina margins entire; flower weakly bilabiate; space between K and C [water calyx]; (A of two lengths, but free), tapetal cells 2-4-nucleate; pollen (colpate, por[or]ate), exine thickened near apertures; G collateral, placenta on the margin of the carpel, otherwise position various, style short [to 1/2 length of corolla tube], stigma unlobed, with conspicuous stigmatoid tissue, wet; ovules 2/carpel, apotropous, integument 5-9 cells across, obturator +; (antipodal cells multinuclear); K persistent, enclosing fruit; seeds not dispersed separately; testa thin-walled; cotyledons spatulate; n = 5-12+.

31[list]/918. Pantropical (to warm temperate), but mostly New World, esp. S. South America (map: from van Steenis & van Balgooy 1966; Hultén 1971; Lebrun 1977; Meusel et al. 1978; Brummitt 2007; Australia's Virtual herbarium 12.2012. In Europe, Verbena officinalis may be native only from S. Europe eastwards; ).

1. Petreeae Briquet

Shrubs and vines; flowers ± polysymmetric; K much enlarged, petal-like (not P. brevicalyx); G 1; fruit indehiscent, fleshy.

1/12. Mexico to the Amazon Basin.

Synonymy: Petreaceae J. Agardh

[Duranteae [[Casselieae + Citharexyleae] [Priveae [Rhaphithamnus [Neospartoneae [Verbeneae + Lantaneae]]]]]]: fruit loculicidal, two-partite.

2. Duranteae Bentham

Trees to herbs; eglandular hairs multicellular; (flowers sessile), (± polysymmetric); (A 2 + 2 staminodes); G 1([4]).

6/192: Stachytarpheta (130). S. U.S.A. to Argentina, (Africa to India).

Synonymy: Durantaceae J. Agardh

[[Casselieae + Citharexyleae] [Priveae [Rhaphithamnus [Neospartoneae [Verbeneae + Lantaneae]]]]]: ?

[Casselieae + Citharexyleae]: ?

3. Casselieae Troncoso

Terminal inflorescence 0; (staminode 0); (G 1 [adaxial carpel]).

3/14. Mexico and the Caribbean to Argentina.

4. Citharexyleae Briquet

Axillary inflorescences 0.

3/135: Citharexylum (130). S. U.S.A. to Argentina. [Photo - Flower.]

[Priveae [Rhaphithamnus [Neospartoneae [Verbeneae + Lantaneae]]]]: stigma bilobed.

5. Priveae Briquet

?

?1/21. Pantropical-warm Temperate.

6. Rhaphithamnus Miers

Terminal inflorescence 0; fruit indehiscent, fleshy.

1/2. Chile, Argentina.

[Neospartoneae [Verbeneae + Lantaneae]]: flowers sessile.

7. Neospartoneae Olmstead & O'Leary

(Ephedroid shrubs); plant glabrous; (axillary inflorescences 0); (staminode +); G 1.

3/6. Argentina, Chile, S. to Patagonia.

[Verbeneae + Lantaneae]: staminode 0.

8. Verbeneae Dumortier

Lamina margin often serrate; (inflorescence unbranched); (A 5 - Verbena); fruits also septicidal [four pyrenes].

3/260: Verbena (200), Junellia (48). Mostly American, Eurasia to Africa.

9. Lantaneae Endlicher

Ethereal oils +; stomata anisocytic; (inflorescence often ± capitate), rarely terminal; G 1 [Coelocarpum, with [G 2], probably sister to rest], "style short", stigma entire; (ovule 1/carpel - Lantana); (endosperm + - Lantana).

9/275: Lippia (120), Lantana (100). Mostly New World

Synonymy: Lantanaceae Martynov

• Verbenaceae are shrubs or trees that may be recognised easily because the plants are often aromatic, the opposite leaves are serrate, the stem is often angled and with a line across the node, and the often rather weakly monosymmetric flowers with a trumpet-shaped corolla and more or less included anthers are borne in racemes or heads. The stigmatic area is conspicuously asymmetrically swollen and glandular and the ovary has four ovules.

Evolution. Divergence & Distribution. Stem ages for Verbenaceae are estimated to 48-62 m.y. (Wikström et al. 2001; Bremer et al 2004); the crown age may be at least 40 m.y. (Nie et al. 2006).

The family appears to be of tropical South American origin (Olmstead 2013). O'Leary et al. (2012) reconstructed the evolution of characters and fruit; there is a tritomy [Lantaneae + Dipyrena + Verbeneae], so if there is a clade including the first two, it will lack the apomorphies of Lantaneae. Exactly where Rhaphithamnus and Coelocarpum end up on the tree (see below) will also affect our understanding of character evolution.

Pollination Biology & Seed Dispersal. Lu-Irving and Olmstead (2013) estimated that fleshy fruits had been derived from dry fruits at least five times in Lantaneae alone.

Plant-Animal Interactions. Gall-forming fruit flies of the Tephretidae-Tephrellini are found here (and on Acanthaceae and Lamiaceae: Korneyev 2005).

Chemistry, Morphology, etc. The endothelium seems to be poorly developed (Johri et al. 1992). For the position of the carpels, see Sattler (1973); the ovules are described as being attached to the margins of the carpel (Junell 1934). Two-chambered mericarps or stones may contain an ovule/seed from both carpels (Sanders 2001); indehiscent fruits are fleshy (O'Leary et al. 2012).

For hairs and stomata, see Cantino (1990), for the megagametophyte, see Rudall and Clark (1992), for exine thickening, see Chadwell et al. (1992), for iridoids, see von Poser et al. (1997 - also Soltis et al. 2005b), and for general information, see Sanders (2001), Atkins (2004) and Brummitt (2007).

Phylogeny. Marx and Olmstead (2007) found that Petraea and Duranta, both woody, were successively sister to the rest of the family; Petraea (and Nashia) have polysymmetric flowers (Jabbour et al. 2008). Marx et al. (2010) present a comprehensive phlogeny of the family, although, as they noted, sampling within the big genera needed to be improved. A couple of genera remained unplaced: Dipyrena may be close to Verbeneae while Rhaphithamnus may be close to Priveae, although branches within the latter are rather long; the position within Lantaneae of Coelocarpum, morphologically plesiomorphic, was also uncertain (Marx et al. 2010). For relationships around Verbena, see Yuan and Olmstead (2008), while within the Lantana-Lippia complex, Aloysia formed a basal grade and members of the animal-dispersed Lantana with their pyrene-type fruits were polyphyletic (Lu-Irving et al. 2009; esp. Lu-Irving & Olmstead 2013).

Classification. Verbenaceae as currently circumscribed (especially Cantino 1992a, b) are much reduced, many genera having been placed in Lamiaceae; the two families are now more easily distinguishable than before. For Avicennia, also once included in Verbenaceae, see Acanthaceae; Phrymaceae are also separate and are not immediately related, although included in Verbenaceae by Cronquist (1981) and others in the past, in part because they have a similar racemose inflorescence.

For a tribal classification, see Marx et al. (2010).

The whole Lantana-Lippia complex, speciose although it may be, could perhaps be reduced to a single genus, the larger genera currently recognised being para- or polyphyletic (Lu-Irving et al. 2009). Although Marx et al. (2010) suggested that nine genera could be recognised in the complex, there is no doubt that major generic adjustments in this area will be needed; earlier taxonomists had used fruit characteristics to delimit genera, and fruit evolution has turned out to be highly homoplasious (Lu-Irving & Olmstead 2013). I provisionally include Glandularia, with about 100 species, within Verbena. The limits of genera around Junellia have been redrawn (O'Leary et al. 2009); for a revision of Junellia in the old sense, see Peralta et al. (2008).

PEDALIACEAE R. Brown, nom. cons.   Back to Lamiales

Annual to perennial herbs (± succulent stem; swollen roots) to deciduous trees; orobanchin, amyloid +; (cambium storied); pericycle also with sclereids (fibers few); petiole bundle interrupted-annular; hairs broadly capitate-stellate, mucilaginous; leaf (spiral - Sesamum), lamina (venation palmate), margins toothed, lobed or entire; flowers usu. axillary (inflorescence dichasial); paired nectaries (modified flowers) at base of pedicel (not - Uncarinia); (C with spur); A (5), thecae ± confluent, at right angles to filaments, staminode + (0); pollen 5-13 stephanoocolpate; G [2-4], ± divided, (8 loculi - Josephinia), stigma with 2 broad lobes, often sensitive, wet; ovules 2-many/carpel, (1 ovule/loculus - Josephinia), integument 7-20 cells across, hypostase +; fruit with hooks or prickles of inner woody layer exposed as mesocarp rots and fruit splits loculicidally, style base indurated, (schizocarp; nut; wind-dispersed); seeds winged or not, surface often sculpted, testa multiplicative, exotestal cells palisade or otherwise thickened, (mesotesta with crystals); endosperm thin, fat and amyloid [xyloglucans] in cotyledons; n = 8 (13); protein bodies in nucleus?

14[list]/70: Sesamum (19), Pterodiscus (13). Mostly tropical, in coastal or arid habitats, Old World (map: from Ihlenfeldt & Grabow-Seidensticker 1979; FloraBase 2005; Australia's Virtual Herbarium xii.2012; Ihlenfeldt 1994b, 2010).

• Pedaliaceae are herbs or shrubs with mucilaginous hairs and large, monosymmetric flowers with a superior ovary. Placentation is axile, and the fruits often have hooks, prickles, or other emergences. Some taxa have glands at the base of the pedicel - these are modified flowers. [Photo - Flower.]

Evolution. Pollination Biology & Seed Dispersal. The diversity of fruit morphology and dispersal "strategies" in this small family is remarkable, as is their variation in growth form (Ihlenfeldt 2010).

Chemistry, Morphology, etc. The mucilage glands normally have four apical cells. The apparently single axillary flowers of some taxa appear to represent reduced cymes, the paired nectaries at the base of the pedicel representing modified flowers (Manning 1991). Josephinia may have four carpels, each loculus being divided - an unusual feature for a member of the [asterid I + asterid II] clade. Although Rogeria is reported to occur in Brasil, this seems to be a mistake (Volker Bittrich, pers. comm.).

Some information is taken from Stapf (1895), Carlquist (1987b: wood anatomy), S. D. Manning (1991: U.S.A., general), Ihlenfeldt (1967, 2004, 2010: general), and Jordaan (2011: seed coat of Harpagophytum - complex).

Synonymy: Sesamaceae Berchtold & J. Presl

[Schlegeliaceae + Martyniaceae]: ?

SCHLEGELIACEAE Reveal   Back to Lamiales

Large trees or woody shrubs, vines or epiphytes; pericyclic sheath sclereidal; nodes 1:3; petiole bundle solid-(almost)annular, with wing bundles, pericyclic lignification 0; sclereids +; stomata variable; lamina margins entire or serrate; flowers quite large; nectaries on outside of K; staminode +/0; nectary vascularized from carpellary bundles/0; (placentation lobed intrusive parietal); fruit a berry, K persistent; exotestal cells with scalariform thickenings on the inner periclinal wall or mucilaginous with outer periclinal wall absent; endosperm +/0, embryo stout, cotyledons slightly over half its length; n = 20; seedlings epigeal and phanerocotylar, cotyledons lobed.

4[list]/28: Schlegelia (15), Gibsoniothamnus (11). Mexico to tropical South America, Cuba (Synapsis) (map: from Gentry 1980). [Photo - Flower, Flower, Fruit.]

• Schlegeliaceae may be recognised by their woody habit, most being epiphytes, their white bark, opposite, often thick leaves, quite large and monosymmetric flowers, and berries.

Chemistry, Morphology, etc. For wood anatomy, see Gasson and Dobbins (1991); there are no obvious differences in wood anatomy between Schlegeliaceae and Bignoniaceae. Schlegelia may have anomocytic or paracytic stomata, while those of Gibsoniothamnus are anisocytic or cyclocytic. There are often quite conspicuous "glands" on the lower surface of the lamina - these are hairs with the normal lamialean structure of radially-arranged cells in the head. Gibsoniothamnus may be anisophyllous (c.f. Thomandersia). Winged seeds have been reported for the family, but the combination of winged seeds and baccate fruits seems rather improbable. I have not seen the Cuban Synapsis.

Some information is taken from Leinfellner (1973: gynoecium of Schlegelia), Armstrong (1985), Burger and Barringer (2000), Barringer (2004: Gibsoniothamnus), and Fischer (2004b: under Scrophulariaceae). Gibsoniothamnus parvifolius: Herrera 672, - leaf, stem, seed; G. allenii: McPherson 11069 - leaf, seed; Schleglia darienensis: Neill et al. 11411 - seed.

Previous Relationships. Schlegelia and relatives are usually included in Bignoniaceae or in Scrophulariaceae s.l..

MARTYNIACEAE Horaninow, nom. cons.   Back to Lamiales

Annual herbs, roots often tuberous (perennials; woody); harpagide, harpagioside [8ß-8α-methyl substituted iridoids] +; petiole bundle deeply arcuate, also adaxial cortical and medullary bundles; plant sticky-hairy; leaves also spiral, lamina margins toothed; inflorescence racemose; (K free); A (2), connective with apical gland, staminode(s) +; pollen trinucleate, grains inaperturate, exine dissected into 20-40 platelets; G with parietal placentation, placentae bilobed, stigma bilobed; 2-many ovules/carpel; capsule with paired apical spurs or hooks [developing from sterile upper part of ovary], mesocarp ± fleshy, falling off, woody layer with crests and spines; exotesta subgelatinous, or inner and radial walls with cellulosic bands, inner layers lignified [Proboscidea], or lignified exotesta only persistent; endosperm at most thin; n = 15, 16.

5[list]/16: Proboscidea (10). Tropical and subtropical America (for map, see McPherson 2010, vol. 2).

• Martyniaceae are herbs with sticky hairs and large, monosymmetric flowers with a superior ovary. The placentation is parietal, and the fruits have two prominent apical hooks as well as other hooks, spines or prickles. [Photo - Flower]

Evolution. Ecology & Physiology. Insects may stick to the very viscid indumentum of Martyniaceae, although there is no evidence that the plants are carnivorous (see Rice 2008; Plachno et al. 2009; c.f. Stylidiaceae [Asterales], which also have sticky hairs and for which there are recent suggestions that there may be carnivory). Martyniaceae are not immediately related to Lentibulariaceae and Byblidaceae, which are directly or indirectly carnivorous (Müller et al. 2004).

Chemistry, Morphology, etc. Some information is taken from Stapf (1895: general), S. Singh (1970: embryology, etc.), and Carlquist (1987b: wood anatomy); Ihlenfeldt (2004) and McPherson (2010, vol. 2, esp. photographs) provide general accounts of the family .

Phylogeny. For relationships within Martyniaceae - rather poorly supported and varying somewhat according to the marker used - see Gutierrez (2008).

Previous Relationships. Martyniaceae and Pedaliaceae have often been combined (as Pedaliaceae, e.g. Cronquist 1981), but there is currently no evidence that they form a monophyletic group. Differences in pollen (inaperturate and with platelets vs several colpi) and placentation (parietal vs axile) best separate the two.

BIGNONIACEAE Jussieu   Back to Lamiales

Trees or shrubs; C-4 carboxyl and ecarboxylated iridoids +; cork also cortical; cambium storied; (vessel elements with scalariform perforation plates); nodes 1:1-3 or more; petiole bundles annular (also rib or adaxial bundles); stomata helicocytic [?level]; leaves bicompound, lamina vernation conduplicate (involute - Pyrostegia), margins entire (toothed); flowers large; K often with nectaries, A (5, 2), thecae sagittate or head-to-head, usu. not confluent, tapetum amoeboid; pollen tricolpate, psilate, nonperforate; bundles in the ovary wall and also opposite septum, ovules in two groups in each loculus, (placentae lobed), stigma lobes broad, sensitive, wet; integument (5-)6-7 cells across, nucellar endothelium +; fruit often with nectaries; seeds many, winged; cells in wings with helical or annular (none; reticulate) thickenings; endosperm 0; n = 20; germination epigeal, phanerocotylar (cryptocotylar), cotyledons obcordate, lobed, persistent.

110[list]/800 - eight groups and unassigned below. Mainly tropical, esp. South America (map: from van Steenis 1977). [Photos - Amphitechna Flower, Distictella Flower.]

1. Jacarandeae Seeman

K ± free, staminode large, bearded; G with parietal placentation; fruit orbicular, angustiseptate; n = 18.

1(?2)/55: Jacaranda (50). Tropical America.

[Tourrettieae [Tecomeae [Bignonieae [[Catalpeae + Oroxyleae] [Crescentieae + Coleae]]]]]: ?

2. Tourrettieae G. Don

Vines, climbing by tendrils; inflorescence racemose, bracteate; staminode 0.

2/6. Andes in South America and N. to Mexico. [Photo - Eccremocarpus Flower.]

[Tecomeae [Bignonieae [[Catalpeae + Oroxyleae] [Crescentieae + Coleae]]]]: leaves once compound; (staminodes +, simple).

3. Tecomeae Endlicher

Distinctive C-4 formyl iridoids.

12/55. Worldwide, not Arctic.

[Bignonieae [[Catalpeae + Oroxyleae] [Crescentieae + Coleae]]]: ?

4. Bignonieae Dumortier

Lianes, climbing by tendrils; (monofluoracetates +); anomalous secondary thickening + [phloem discontinuous, the basal condition is for the xylem cylinder to be 4-lobed]; leaves usu. ternate; fruit usu. septifragal, with persistent septum and separate whip-like strands of woody tissue [= vascular bundles opposite septum].

21/380: Adenocalymma (78), Arrabidea (69), Anemopaegma (42), Amphilophium (41). America, largely tropical.

[[Catalpeae + Oroxyleae] [Crescentieae + Coleae]]: ?

[Catalpeae + Oroxyleae]: ?

5. Catalpeae Meisner

Leaves simple; (A 2).

2-3/11. North America, the Greater Antilles, East Asia.

6. Oroxyleae A. H. Gentry

(Leaves bicompound); (flowers polysymmetric; A 5); fruits septicidal.

4/6. Indo-Malesian.

[Crescentieae + Coleae]: ?

7. Crescentieae G. Don

Leaves palmate, (unifoliolate; spiral, simple, phyllodinous); (flowers bat-pollinated, ± cauliflorous); (fruits ± indehiscent; seeds not [barely] winged).

12/147: Tabebuia (70). Central and South America and the Greater Antilles.

Synonymy: Crescentiaceae Dumortier

8. Coleae Bojer

(Leaves phyllodinous, articulated); flowers bat-pollinated, ± cauliflorous; fruits ± indehiscent; seeds ?not winged.

4/60. Madagascar and surrounding islands.

• Bignoniaceae can be recognised quite easily. Vegetatively, they are woody and with lenticillate stems, and most have opposite, compound leaves; the New World vines and lianes often have leaf tendrils but otherwise there are terminal leaflets. There are often extrafloral/extranuptial nectaries on the leaf, stem (at the nodes), the outer surface of the calyx and even on the ovary surface. The often rather large flowers are monosymmetric, the calyx is often spathaceous (Old World taxa), there are two series of ovules in each carpel, and the broad, almost spathulate stigmatic lobes are often sensitive. The seeds are usually flattened and winged.

Evolution. Divergence & Distribution. Fossil seeds and fruit of Bignoniaceae are known from the Eocene of Washington State, being dated to ca 49.4 m.y. (Pigg & Wehr 2002). Stem ages for Bignoniaceae are estimated to be 47-68 m.y. (Wikström et al. 2001; Bremer et al 2004), but crown-group Bignonieae have been dated to (54.2-)49.8(-45.7) m.y., the crown clade that includes the tribe minus the monotypic Perianthomega being (52.2-)48.0(-43.9) m.y.o. (Lohmann et al. 2012, q.v. for many more dates within the tribe).

The family is probably New World in origin, with five or six shifts to the Old World and one back to the New World (Olmstead et al. 2009; Olmstead 2013). Lohmann et al. (2012) suggested that the ancestors of Central and North American (Panama, Washington State) fossils assignable to Bignonieae, as well as the North American Bignonia itself, might have arrived there by long distance dispersal. Interestingly, members of three clades which are surmised to have been involved in long distance dispersal are currently dispersed by animals; Olmstead (2013) thought that there adaptation to animal dispersal occured after wind-assisted dispersal events.

Pollination Biology & Seed Dispersal. The large flowers of Bignoniaceae are animal pollinated, and the considerable variation in floral morphology and flowering phenology can be associated with the behaviour and type of visitor (Gentry 1974a, b, 1990; Alcantara & Lohmann 2010a, b). One of the commonest flower types in the New World is the Anemopaegma type, visited by euglossine bees (along with anthophorids); this may be ancestral in Bignonieae, and has an infundibular, straight corolla tube, nectar, and is magenta, yellow or white (Alcantara & Lohmann 2010a). The nectarless Cydista type, otherwise rather similar florally, is also visited by euglossines, a group of bees that began diversifying some 42-27 m.y.a. (Ramírez et al. 2010). Alcantara and Lohmann (2010a, b) found that, in general, ancestral flower size in the lianescent Bignonieae is larger than that of today's species.

Dispersal syndromes are also quite diverse (Gentry 1983; 1990) but they are not particularly correlated with pollination syndromes. Wind dispersal is common, and the seeds often have broad, papery wings. A number of taxa have seeds dispersed by water, including Dolichandrone, a mangrove plant; here the modified seed wing is corky and serves as a flotation device. In Crescentieae, Amphitecna and Crescentia (calabash) have spherical indehiscent fruits, Parmentiera has elongated fleshy fruits, although its seeds still have a small wing, and Spirotecoma and Tabebuia and relatives have elongated, dehiscent fruits and winged seeds. Kigelia africana is bat-pollinated and has massive, sausage-shaped, indehiscent fruits. Oroxylon is also pollinated by bats, its flowers being almost polysymmetric and with five stamens, however, it has capsules and wind-dispersed seeds.

Ecology. Bignoniaceae - Bignonieae in particular - are, along with Sapindaceae, the most ecologically important neotropical group of lianes, and Bignoniaceae are the second most speciose family in drier tropical forest types in America (Gentry 1988, 1991). Extrafloral nectaries are extremely common; these may be on the tips of young leaflets, at the nodes, on the outer surface of the calyx and on the ovary, and domatia are also common (e.g. Gonzalez 2011).

Vegetative Variation. Bignonieae are nearly all lianes with branched tendrils and distinctively rayed xylem (Lohmann 2006 for a phylogeny). Perianthomega has biternate leaves, also, it has robust unbranched tendrils that represent petioles, and three small scars (leaflets!) can be seen at their ends. Within Bignonieae, variation in the detail of the ray-like fluting of the xylem can be interpreted as complexity increasing by terminal addition and is mirrored by ontogenetic increases within an individual; shrubby Bignonieae (polyphyletic) show a simple pattern that results from a heterochronic reversal (Pace et al. 2009). Pace et al. (2011) note that the variant phloem that causes the fluting of the vascular cylinder has large-diameter sieve tubes and numerous fibres, hence contributing substantially to translocation and to stem support; regular phloem has sieve tubes with much smaller diameters.

Palmate leaves have arisen more than once within Bignoniaceae, but are known only in New World taxa. The New World Tabebuia s.l., which has opposite, palmate leaves, is polyphyletic (Grose & Olmstead 2007b); a number of taxa - some apparently very different vegetatively - are derived from it. These include Amphitecna, with spiral, simple leaves like those of Crescentia. The petioles are short and the lamina has distinctive, widely spreading venation; they are phyllodinous, and in some species of Crescentia palmately leaflets are borne on the end of a lamina-like petiole. Parmentiera and Spirotecoma, both with opposite palmately-compound leaves, are also close; all four genera have bat-pollinated flowers. They are part of a clade of palmately-leaved taxa (Grose & Olmstead 2002, 2007a; see expanded Crescentieae above). The simple and clearly petiolate leaves of Catalpa (opposite or whorled) and Chilopsis (spiral: the two genera hybridise), have a very different morphology from those of Crescentia, etc.; they appear to be more conventionally simple.

Chemistry, Morphology, etc. Aliform-confluent xylem parenchyma is common. There are four main carpel bundles, but only two in the "Scrophulariaceae" (Armstrong 1985), Gesneriaceae, etc. In Tourrettieae, Tourrettia has sub four-locular ovaries each with a single rank of ovules, while Eccremocarpus has parietal placentation. Ovule shape varies considerably (Mauritzon 1935); Bittencourt and Mariath (2002) described the ovules of Tabebuia pulcherrima as having an integumentary endothelium. A number of Bignonieae with septifragal dehiscence also have cracks in the loculicidal position along the backs of the valves.

For general information, see Manning (2000) and Fischer et al. (2004a: the classification is very "classical", c.f. e.g. Lohmann 2006b). Also, for toxic monofluoracetates, see Lee et al. (2012), for wood anatomy, see Gasson and Dobbins (1991: lianes and the rest compared), for information on pollen, which is very variable, see Gentry and Tomb (1979) and Burelo-Ramos et al. (2009: Pithecocteniinae), for protein bodies in the nucleus, see Bigazzi (1995), for tapetum, Huysmans et al. (1998), for iridoids, von Poser et al. (2000), and for seed anatomy, including that of Schlegliaceae and Paulowniaceae, see Lersten et al. (2002). There is a species level checklist for the family.

Phylogeny. The basic phylogenetic structure within the family is [[[Jacarandeae [Tourrettieae [Bignonieae + the rest]]] (Olmstead et al. 2002). This has been further amplified by Olmstead et al. (2009: ca 3/4 of the genera sampled, three genes), although a number of relationships between major groups, e.g. of Tecomeae, remain poorly supported. For a comprehensive (2-gene + morphology) phylogeny of Bignonieae, see Lohmann (2006a, 2012); [Perianthomega [[Adenocalymma + Neojobertia + The Rest]] is the basic phylogenetic structure. Major clades there are supported by a mixture of floral and vegetative characters, and generic limits have been reorganized accordingly (Lohmann 2002, esp. 2006). Bignonieae may be close to Oroxylum and relatives - which have bicompound leaves and septicidal capsules - and Catalpa - which has only two stamens (Olmstead et al. 2002). Coleae as narrowly delimited here are restricted to Madagascar, and their phylogeny and fruit evolution has been examined by Zjhra et al. (2004); they are part of a larger and well supported clade that includes Kigelia, Spathodea, etc. Relationships between the New World Tabebuia, with opposite, palmately-compound leaves and its relatives have recently been clarified. Amphitecna and Crescentia, both with spiral, simple leaves, are probably derived (Grose & Olmstead 2007a, b).

Classification. The tribes above are those recognised by Olmstead et al. (2009). Note, however, that their tribal classification is not exhaustive in that not all genera are assigned to tribes, partly because their phylogenetic position is still ambiguous (e.g. Argylia, Delostoma) or simply because extension of the circumscription of some tribes and the addition of new ones will be needed in a classification such as that used here. Coleae and Crescentieae, both with similar flowers and fruits and "simple" leaves, but of different morphologies, are not sister taxa; Crescentieae have been expanded to include Tabebuia, etc. (the Tabebeuia alliance of Grose & Olmstead 2007a, b), the expanded clade being characterized by palmate leaves. Coleae, too, could well be expanded to include genera like Kigelia, Spathodea, etc.

Over-reliance on characters associated with pollination and dispersal syndromes as markers of generic distinctness has caused serious problems with generic limits (see Lohmann 2003, 2006a, b). Generic limits in Bignonieae have been extensively reworked (Lohmann 2006, esp. 2009); in Lohmann and Ulloa (2007) all the species accepted in Bignoniaceae are listed.

Thanks. I am grateful to L. Lohmann for comments.

ACANTHACEAE Jussieu, nom. cons.   Back to Lamiales

Quaternary methylammonium compounds, amyloid +; (cork cambium deep seated); (intraxylary phloem +); stomata diacytic; nodes swollen [?level]; lamina margins entire to toothed; inflorescence with main axis indeterminate, bracts large, conspicuous; K free or connate, often sharply pointed, adaxial lobes of C outside others in bud [aestivation descending cochleate], (lobes narrow); A (2; + 2 staminodes; 5), staminode +/0; G lacking septal bundles; ovule with "thin" integument; embryo sac long, curved, (apex of 4-nucleate sac growing out of the micropyle and eventually into the placenta); (zygote pushed back into the ovule by a long suspensor); capsule dehiscence explosive, walls cartilaginous, K persistent; endosperm development highly asymmetric, the two haustoria lying close to each other, embryo often ± curved.

220[list]/4,000 - eleven groups below. Mostly tropical.

1. Nelsonioideae Sreemadhavan

Herbs; gland-headed hairs with 2-celled heads; leaves opposite to spiral, lamina margins?; inflorescence a raceme, (branches cymose - Saintpauliopsis); bracts spiral, (bracteoles 0 - Nelsonia); (A 2), anthers variable (e.g. thecae ± separate); ovary (with parietal placentation - Elytraria); stigma broadly (unequally) lobed, (sensitive - Elytraria); ovules many(-4)/carpel, campylotropous, endothelium +; antipodal cells persistent; funicular obturator +; jaculators rudimentary[?]; seeds 2-many, ruminate, testa ± disorganised (± visible - Nelsonia); endosperm +, oily; n = 9.

6-7/170: Staurogyne (140). Tropical.

Synonymy: Nelsoniaceae Sreemadhavan

[Acanthoideae [Thunbergioideae + Avicennioideae]]: (inverted vascular bundles in the pith); acicular fibres +; (adaxial C lobes outside others - [descending cochleate]); pollen other than tricolpate or -colporate common; ovules 2/carpel; collateral, endothelium 0; (amyloid [xyloglucans] in cotyledons +), endosperm 0.

2. Acanthoideae Eaton

Herbs (to shrubs); (benzoxazinones +); cystoliths + (0); petiole bundles arcuate, arranged in a circle, (annular); (leaf margins spiny); C aestivation often with abaxial member outside [= ascending cochlear], (slit-monosymmetric - rare); anthers sagittate, or thecae displaced and not opposite, (one theca ± reduced); pollen hideously variable, often porate; stigma dry, usu. bifid; capsules obovoid; seeds flattened, 2-few, (hairy), borne on hook-like hardened funicles [jaculators, retinacula]; exotesta palisade, (mucilaginous), (hypodermal cells thickened); cytologically very variable.

217/3,220: Asystasia (70). World-wide; the bulk of the family (map: from Brummit 2007). [Photo - Habit, Flower.]

2A. Acantheae

Nodes not swollen; A 4, anthers monothecous; pollen tricolpate.

21/500: Aphelandra (170), Blepharis (130).

[[Ruellieae + Justicieae] [BAWN clade]]: cystoliths +; pollen porate.

[Ruellieae + Justicieae]: pollen with false apertures.

2B. Ruellieae

(Filament curtain +); C left-contorted; pollen often reticulate, with compound apertures; adaxial stigmatic lobe shorter than the abaxial lobe, to 0; (ovules 3+/carpel); seeds with hygroscopic trichomes; n = 6 and just about everything else in the family, 15 and 16 common, x = 8?

38/1185: Ruellia (355), Strobilanthes (350), Hygrophila (100), Dyschoriste (80), Hemigraphis (60), Sanchezia (60).

2C. Justicieae

Parallel ridges on upper lip of corolla [rugula] holding style (0); A (2), thecae displaced, not opposite; pollen tricolporate, hexapseudocolpate.

Justicia (600), Ptysiglottis (60).

[Barlerieae + Andrographidae + Whitfieldieae + Nemacanthus] / BAWN clade: ?

2D. Barlerieae

C quincuncial; seed with hygroscopic trichomes.

/420: Barleria (300). Pantropical.

2E. Andrographidae

Pollen colporate, ornamented and thickened exine surrounding or over apertures; (ovules 3+/carpel).

/75. Asia.

2F. Whitfieldieae

(C left-contorted); pollen biporate, lenticular, granular around apertures; stigma capitate; seeds with concentric rings of ridges, (also hygroscopic trichomes + - Lankesteria).

2G. Nemacanthus

K united, 3 + 2; pollen tricolporate, intercolpal regions psilate/foveolate; seed with hygroscopic trichomes.

1/30. Africa, Madagascar, Arabia to Vietnam.

Synonymy: Justiciaceae Rafinesque, Meyeniaceae Sreemadhavan

[Thunbergioideae + Avicennioideae]: C left-contorted; filament bases thickened; ovules collateral, embryo sac ± on surface of nucellus; cotyledons folded.

3. Thunbergioideae Kosteletzky

Twining vines (erect); (C-8 iridoid glucosides [unedoside] +); petiole bundles arcuate or annular; lamina vernation strongly curved; inflorescence with 2 or more axillary flowers in the median plane of the leaf/inflorescence bract, adaxial flowers opening first; bracts 0, bracteoles very large, connate; K a rim, (up to 16 lobes), C (not contorted); anthers with lignified unicellular hairs (multicellular awns), sagittate, (thecae slightly displaced), dehiscing by (elongated) pores/slits, connective elongated, endothecium 0; pollen 8-colpate or spiraperturate; (adaxial carpel aborting - Mendoncia), stigma wet, small and sub-bilobed to trumpet-shaped, with broad and often unequal papillate lobes; capsule also septifragal, (fruit a 1-2-seeded drupe - Mendoncia); chalazal endosperm haustorium 0, (cotyledons twice folded - Mendoncia, etc.); n = 9, 28.

Ca 5/150: Thunbergia (90), Mendoncia (60: M. belizensis has rather boraginaceous hair bases). Tropical America, Africa and Madagascar, fewer in South East Asia - Malesia. [Photo - Flowers.]

Synonymy: Mendonciaceae Bremekamp, Thunbergiaceae Lilja

4. Avicennioideae Miers

Trees; betaines +, tanniniferous; wood with successive cambia, phloem islands occurring in bands of conjunctive tissue; vessels in radial multiples; nodes 3:3; petiole bundle annular; sclereids +; lamina thick, with salt glands on both sides, colleters +; inflorescence in dense thyrsoid spicate units[!]; flowers (polysymmetric), 4(-6)-merous; K ± free, C with nectary glands on tube; stamens = and alternating with C; pollen 3-colporate; nectary small [as tufts of hairs?]; (G with false septae), loculi apically confluent, stigma with 2 blunt lobes; ovules apical on partitions, ± straight, micropyle 0; fruit an achene, K persistent, green; embryo green, cotyledons induplicate-reduplicate; n = 18, 32; seed breaking the seed coat before the seed falls from the tree.

1/8 (species limits need attention). Mangroves in tropics, but also warm temperate (map: from Moldenke 1960; Tomlinson 1986). [Photo - Flower]

Synonymy: Avicenniaceae Miquel, nom. cons.

• Acanthoideae are usually herbs, and can be recognised by their often swollen nodes, the stem immediately above them collapsing on drying, and the opposite leaves that have cystoliths (but not in Acanthus and immediate relatives). The bracteoles are often prominent and the calyx (and corolla) lobes may be narrow. The obovoid, almost woody capsules have few, relatively large, flattened seeds cradled by hook-like jaculators; the latter are hardened funicles. The seeds are shot out as the capsule dehisces explosively.

• Thunbergioideae are vines. There are no bracts, but large bracteoles envelop the flower. The calyx is reduced to a rim or is represented by a number of linear lobes. The flowers are large, the anther connective is elongated and there are two ovules per carpel.

• Avicennioideae are mangrove trees with pneumatophores that can be recognised by their opposite, entire, somewhat fleshy leaves with invisible secondary and finer venation, clavate hairs covering the lower surface, and salt glands on both surfaces. The flowers have as many stamens as corolla lobes and a persistent green calyx, and the fruits are achenes with a single rather large seed, as befits a mangrove plant.

• Nelsonioideae are rather undistinguished...

Evolution. Divergence & Distribution. Crown group Acanthaceae may be slightly over 90 m.y.o., with Thunbergioideae and Acanthoideae diverging ca 86 m.y.a.; within Acanthoideae, Acantheae diverged from the rest (102-)79(-65) m.y.a. (Tripp et al. 2013b). Ricklefs et al. (2006) date the mangrove genus Avicennia to ca 42 m.y.

Physacanthus, apparently the product of an ancient hybridization event between Acantheae and Ruellieae, has characters of both; it lacks cystoliths, as in the former, but has pollen with compound germinal apertures, as in the latter (Tripp et al. 2013b).

Borg and Schönenberger (2011) mention possible floral/developmental apomorphies of Thunbergioideae and Avicennioideae. The features characterizing Nelsonioideae mentioned by Scotland and Vollesen (2000) - no retinacula or cystoliths, descending cochlear aestivation (i.e. the adaxial petals overlapping the abaxial petals in bud) - are likely to be plesiomorphies (see Eichler 1875; c.f. McDade et al. 2012), as is their sometimes rather undistinguished tricolpate or tricolporate pollen.

Plant-Animal Interactions. Gall-forming fruit flies of the Tephretidae-Tephrellini are found here (and on Verbenaceae and Lamiaceae: Korneyev 2005). Larvae of Nymphalinae-Melitaeini butterflies commonly feed on Acanthaceae (Wahlberg 2001; Nylin & Wahlberg 2008). Mass defoliation of Avicennia by lepidopteran larvae seems to be not uncommon (Fernandes et al. 2009).

Pollination Biology & Seed Dispersal. Pollination has been extensively studied in the family. The filament curtain, formed from decurrent filament ridges in the corolla tube and more or less connate filaments immediately above the adnate portion of the filaments, is probably involved in pollination in Ruellieae and perhaps other taxa, too. The curtain divides the corolla tube vertically into compartments, and tranverse ridges may develop near the base of the corolla tube, and the nectar becomes enclosed in separate chambers (Mantkelow 2000; see also Moylan et al. 2004b). Tripp and Manos (2008) studied the pollination systems in the speciose Ruellia. They found that although flowers specialised for bird or bee pollination may reverse pollinators, sphingid-adapted flowers do not reverse, perhaps because they had entirely lost their floral pigments. For bird pollination in Aphelandra, see McDade (1992). All told, 500-600 species of Acanthaceae are humming-bird pollinated (E. A. Tripp and L. McDade, pers. comm.: also Tripp & Manos 2008). Acanthaceae (minus Nelsonioideae) are extremely heterogeneous palynologically, although any functional significance of this is unclear.

Full (180^o) or partial resupination has evolved several times in Acanthoideae, and this is sometimes caused by the twisting of the corolla tube rather late in development (Daniel & McDade 2005), a rather unusual mechanism. Elytraria (Nelsonioideae) may also have inverted flowers.

Capsules open explosively in all taxa except Avicennioideae and some Thunbergioideae, and Witztum and Schulgasser (1995) discuss in detail capsule dehiscence in Acanthoideae with their distinctive retinacula. There is some dispute as to whether Nelsonioideae have jaculators, but even if present, they are not functional; thus "rudimentary" retinacula are reported from the subfamily (Johri & Singh 1959; Roham Ram & Masand 1963). In a number of taxa the testa is mucilaginous.

In some species of Strobilanthes all the individuals flower and fruit in synchrony and then die; this happens in a regular cycle every few years and can occur over very large areas (Janzen 1976). Both pollinators and seed dispersers (the seed are rich in oils) are attracted to the plants in large numbers.

Ecology & Physiology. Many of the distinctive morphological features of Avicennia are common in other plants found in the mangrove habitat in which it grows. These include its large, green, more or less viviparous embryos that are the unit of dispersal, pneumatophores, and salt glands on both surfaces of the fleshy leaf (Tomlinson 1986: for the evolution of the mangrove habitat, see Rhizophoraceae). These salt glands have largely radially-arranged cells in their heads (Fahn 1979), and appear to be variants of the common glandular hair type in Lamiales. Robert et al. (2009, 2011) discuss the hydraulic architecture of the wood of Avicennia in which both xylem and phloem are organized in a three-dimensional network.

C₄ photosynthesis has been detected in a number of species of Blepharis section Acanthodium (Sage 2004). Blepharis includes mostly plants of dry habitats, some having remarkable growth forms.

Genes & Genomes. Physacanthus appears to represent the descendents of an ancient hybridization between Acantheae and Ruellieae and with back-crossing to the latter, and, remarkably, has remained heteroplasmic (Tripp et al. 2011, esp. 2013b). Plants may be variegated, perhaps because of incompatibilies developing betweem organelles from different genomes (Tripp et al. 2013b)

Chemistry, Morphology, etc. Mendoncia lacks iridoids. Inverted vascular bundles in the pith, or anomalous secondary thickening where an internal and inverted cambium develops, are scattered in the family, but neither have yet been found in Nelsonioideae or Avicennioideae (Schwarzbach & McDade 2002 for literature).

Thunbergia has extrafloral nectaries on the calyx as well as nectaries inside the corolla tube, while in Avicennia nectar is secreted from glands on the corolla tube (for details, see Tomlinson 1986). In Avicennia there may be fewer corolla than sepal lobes ("connation" of a pair of the former?). Bravaisia (Acanthoideae) is distinctive in that it has small bracteoles and rounded calyx and corolla lobes (the former are more or less scarious); the anthers have short basal appendages. There is discussion as to the nature of corolla tube initiation, which is probably usually more or less late, rarely early (c.f. Leins & Erbar 1997; Schönenberger & Endress 1998; see also Endress 1999 for floral development). Pollen variation is extensive, but also shows extensive homoplasy (e.g. Kiel et al. 2006). Indeed, the variation in pollen morphology in the family is spectacular: for variation within Strobilanthes s.l., see Carine and Scotland (2000) and Wang and Blackmore (2003), for that within Acanthoideae as a whole, see Daniel (1998), Scotland and Vollesen (2000) and references, and Daniel (2010). Many Isoglossinae (Justicieae) have distinctive "Gürtelpollen" (Kiel et al. 2006) - lenticular biporate pollen with a prominent circumferential band. The [Acanthoideae [Thunbergioideae + Avicennioideae]] clade appears to lack a funicular obturator, but I am uncertain as to the polarity of this feature. The fruit of Avicennia is a capsule, according to Takhtajan (1997) and Schatz (2001), but it may split only as the seed germinates. In Mendoncia and relatives only one carpel is functional and the fruit is a drupe, while in Thunbergia and relatives the stigma is more or less trumpet-shaped and the fruit is a capsule, usually with four seeds. For cotyledon folding, see Schwarzbach and McDade (2002).

Embryo sac development in some Acanthaceae is very distinctive. The tip of the embryo sac grows through the micropyle and eventually may lodge in the placenta, and this where the egg apparatus is formed (the movements of the polar nuclei are unclear). As the embryo develops, a very long suspensor forms and the embryo is pushed back into the endosperm - and so into the ovule and the developing seed (e.g. Mohan Ram & Masand 1963 and references). The ovule of Avicennia is reported to be straight; the embryo sac is extra-ovular, and the micropylar endosperm haustorium at least is also extra-ovular, being very much branched and reaching the placenta (Junell 1934; Padmanabhan 1964, 1970).

In Acanthoideae other than Acantheae, details of endosperm development show considerable variablity. There is often a central area in which divisions are free nuclear, walls being laid down subsequently, but in some taxa there is what is known as a "basal apparatus", an area in which walls are not laid down; this pattern of endosperm development occurs in no other angiosperms (Mohan Ram & Wadhi 1964; Johri et al. 1992 and references). In Nelsonioideae the central area is entirely cellular, but other details of endosperm and embryo sac development are like those just described (Johri & Singh 1959; Moham Ram & Masand 1963). This distinctive asymmetric endosperm development is also to be found in Lamiaceae-Nepetoideae (a parallelism).

For general anatomy, capsule dehiscence, etc., see van Tieghem (1908), for embryology, etc., see Mauritzon (1934a), and Wadhi (1970), and for stomata, see Rohweder et al. (1971). Some information on Nelsonioideae is taken from Bremekamp (1955), and on Thunbergia, etc., from Schönenberger (1999). For embryology, etc., of Avicennia, see Padmanabhan (1970, as Verbenaceae) and also Borg and Schönenberger (2011) and for wood anatomy, see Carlquist (1990b), for general information, see Tomlinson (1986) and Sanders (1997). Within Acanthoideae, for information on acicular fibres, see Bremekamp (1965: "raphidines"), for chemistry, see H. F. W. Jensen et al. (1988) and Sicker et el. (2000: benzoxazinones), for corolla aestivation, which shows interesting variation, see Scotland et al. (1994), and for floral morphology, see Endress (1994b).

Phylogeny. The erstwhile Nelsoniaceae were placed sister to rest of Acanthaceae in Hedren et al. (1995), and this position seems quite firm (see esp. McDade et al. 2012). Within Nelsonioideae, Nelsonia and Elytraria are probably successively sister to the rest of the subfamily, within which there is quite a lot more structure (McDade et al. 2012, see also 2009; Wenk & Daniel 2009: position of Nelsonia uncertain).

For the phylogeny of Acanthoideae, see McDade et al. (2008: see also McDade & Moody 1999; McDade et al. 2000a; McDade et al. 2006). For that of Acantheae, see McDade et al. (2005); taxa with one- and two-lipped corollas form separate clades, Old World and largely New World respectively. For Justicieae, mostly New World, see McDade et al. (2000b), Kiel et al. (2009), and in particular the very useful treatment by Tripp et al. (2013a). For relationships in the Tetramerium group, see Daniel et al. (2008). Ruellia is defined by pollen morphology, and it includes genera like Blechum, etc.; many taxa are cleistogamous (Tripp & Manos 2006; Tripp 2007). Ruellieae and Acanthese appear to have hybridized in the past (Tripp et al. 2013b). For more on phylogenetic relationships, see Scotland et al. (1995).

The position of Avicennia (Avicenniaceae) within Acanthaceae s.l. is fairly well established (they all have the same distinctive endosperm development, swollen nodes, etc.); it shows a rather weakly supported sister group relationship with Thunbergioideae (Schwarzbach & McDade 2002; Hilu et al. 2003). Support for the [Thunbergioideae + Avicennioideae] clade has remained rather weak and comes mostly from the chloroplast genes (McDade et al. 2008). Borg et al. (2006) provide a phylogeny for Thunbergioideae and discuss their biogeography and the evolution of some characters.

Classification. The tribal classification of Acanthoideae follows that in McDade et al. (2008). Generic limits are difficult, as in other groups where the genera are often based on variation in corolla morphology that represent adaptations to particular pollinators (e.g. Daniel et al. 2008 and references); Bremekamp (1944) dismembered Strobilanthes into some 54 genera most of which have been returned to whence they came. There are more species of Acanthoideae in the New World, more genera in the Old World, but that is probably an artefact of taxonomists' minds... (Tripp et al. 2013a) - and of course genera don't mean very much anyhow. Genera in Justicieae are being recircumscribed and have been assigned to subtribes (Tripp et al. 2013a).

Species numbers seem particularly uncertain here, as Tripp et al. (2013a) suggest.

Previous Relationships. Nelsonioideae have often been placed in Scrophulariaceae s.l. or considered "intermediate" between Scrophulariaceae and Acanthaceae. Avicennia was often included in Verbenaceae, largely because it is woody, has a more or less cymose inflorescence, and a gynoecium with two ovules per carpel, but the similarity is only superficial. For Thomandersia, the seeds of which have a structure described as a retinaculum (c.f. Acanthoideae), although they do not dehisce explosively, see Thomandersiaceae.

LENTIBULARIACEAE Richard, nom. cons.   Back to Lamiales

Herbs, carnivorous [insectivorous], rosette-forming and other growth forms; (verbascoside 0 - Utricularia); primary root reduced immediately after germination, lateral roots [?always] lacking a root cap; plants often Al-accumulators, little oxalate accumulation; ?cork; vessel elements?; stomata also anisocytic; hairs variously secreting mucilage and digestive enzymes; leaves spiral, lamina margins entire, vernation circinate [Pinguicula heterophylla], or leaves apparently 0 and vegetative plant body not easily categorizable; inflorescence racemose; K 5-partite, or divided into 2 lobes, C with abaxial lobe outside the others in bud [asscending cochlear], quincuncial, with an abaxial spur, nectar produced by glandular hairs; A 2 [the abaxial pair], (± free - Pinguicula), filaments stout [always?], thecae (superposed), confluent, epidermal cells ephemeral, staminode 0; (pollen trinucleate), 4-10-zonocolporate [Pinguicula]; G placentation free-central or basal, style hollow, often 0, stigma with broad lobes, wet, (sensitive); ovule with integument 2-6 cells across; (embryo sac protrudes into the micropyle), (antipodal cells persisting); fruit a capsule of various types; exotestal cells variously thickened; endosperm starchy, 0, embryo green, with cotyledons [1 or 2, Pinguicula], or minute, undifferentiated; n = 7-12+.

3[list]/330: Utricularia (220), Pinguicula (80), Genlisea (30). World-wide, introduced into Hawaii? (map: from Hultén 1958, 1971; Taylor 1989). [Photo - Flower]

• Lentibulariaceae are vegetatively diverse insectivorous herbs of wet habitats. Pinguicula has flat leaves that are sticky on the adaxial surface, and Genlisea has tubular leaves and forked, subsurface traps with the opening spiralling along the branches of the fork. Utricularia may have leaves or not, but in either case the rest of the vegetative body is difficult to equate with that of more conventional plants and there are often little animal-collecting bladders with trap-door entrances that open on stimulation of one of the four sensitive hairs. The flowers are much more uniform. They are strongly bilabiate, with a nectar-secreting spur, and there are only two anthers.

Evolution. Ecology & Physiology. As befits their carnivory, Lentibulariaceae are notably prominent in acid habitats including those of the ephemeral flora of African inselbergs (Seine et al. 1996). Details of the morphology of Lentibulariaceae as it relates to their carnivorous proclivities are given by Lloyd (1942) and Juniper et al. (1989) in particular, while Peroutka et al. (2008b) discuss aspects of their functional biology.

Pinguicula, which alone among Lentibulariaceae has roots and embryos with cotyledons (the latter, not all species), has fly-paper traps. Genlisea has long, spirally-twisted, eel-type traps; there animals are passively trapped as they swim up the spiraling branches, their exit being blocked by backwardly-pointing hairs. Some species of Utricularia have non-suction traps rather more like those of Genlisea, but most have suction traps. Secretory glands throughout the family are attached to single epidermal cells and have no contact with vessels.

For the morphology of traps in Utricularia, see Reifenrath et al. (2006 and references; Merl 1915). Many species have sensitive hairs the stimulation of which leads to the rapid opening of the trap, the only suction trap known in land plants. Jobson et al. (2004) and Laakkonen et al. (2006) suggest a possibly associated change in cytochrome c oxidase that may increase respiratory capacity so providing the energy needed for the rapid changes involved in the movements of the traps. Vincent et al. (2011) distinguish between a slow, energy-dependent phase in which water is pumped out of the trap, the trap becoming deformed and elastic enegy being stored in the trap body, and a fast but passive phase in which the trap door opens and closes in less than a millisecond, water and contained prey rushing inside. Spontaneous opening of traps without stimulation by prey is common (Adamec 2011 and references).

There is a diverse microbial community in the traps, perhaps a mutualistic association, that may aid in the uptake of phosphorous by the plant (Sirová et al. 2009). Carbon recently fixed by the plant may end up in the young traps (Sirová et al. 2010), perhaps used by the microbes there. Indeed, some Utricularia may eat aquatic algae, especially if the water is very acid; algae may predominate in traps in such environments (Peroutka et al. 2008a) and nitrogen from ¹⁵N-labelled phytoplankton may move into the plant (Alkhalaf et al. 2009). However, the relationship between plant and algae - and potential animal prey, too - is for the most part unclear (Jobson & Morris 2001; Alkhalaf et al. 2011; Adamec 2012), and the plant may even support the microbial community nutritionally when there are no prey in the traps (Adamec 2011).

Vegetative Variation. It can be difficult to understand the vegetative morphology of some species of Utricularia in particular. The embryo is undifferentiated, and although some exceptions are mentioned by Plachno and Swiatek (2010), even there cotyledons and radicle are not apparent. Small fragments of the "leaves" or the cut peduncle will regenerate the whole plant (Merl 1915), ordinary roots do not occur in Genlisea and Utricularia, and the suction bladder-traps in the latter have no parallel in other flowering plants (see e.g. Sattler & Rutishauser 1990; Plachno & Swiatek 2010 for development). Chormanski and Richards (2012) describe the construction of U. gibba in detail. There are quite commonly leaf-like structures in Utricularia, and U. kuhlmannii was even described as having odd pinnate leaves by Merl (1915). However, Kaplan (1997, vol. 2: chap. 14, 17; e.g. also Lloyd 1942) suggested that the various structures bearing traps in Lentibulariaceae are all basically foliar in nature. For instance, the spiralling, positively geotropic passive traps of Genislea were borne in the same phyllotactic sequence as leaves, and their prolonged apical growth was reminiscent of that of the leaves of some species of the morphologically much less problematic Pinguicula.

Genes & Genomes. Mutation rates in the matK gene in Genilsea in particular, and also Utricularia, are about the highest in all angiosperms (Müller et al. 2004), and that of other genes is also high (Jobson et al. 2003). At the same time, some species of Genlisea, e.g. G. margaretae, have the smallest genomes known from angiosperms (Greilhuber et al. 2006), although there is substantial variation (50 fold) within the family; Ibarra-Laclette et al. (2013, see also 2011) found that almost all the non-genic DNA in the tiny genome of U. gibba had been lost, while there was also evidence of three rounds of genome duplication beyond the palaeohexaploidy event of the core eudicots.

Chemistry, Morphology, etc. "Nutritive tissue" is described as being derived from the ovule, funicle and placenta, i.e., at both ends of the developing embryo, but it is not recorded from Pinguicula. In some taxa the embryo sac more or less escapes from the ovule and apparently takes nutrients from the placenta (Khan 1970 and references). in Pinguicula a single antipodal cell may persist, enlarge, and divide (Kopczynska 1964). The integument may be multiplicative in Genlisea (see Merl 1915); testa morphology in Utricularia is very variable.

For vegetative morphology, see Brugger and Rutishauser (1989), Rutishauser and Isler (2001) and Kaplan (1999: 2 ch. 14), for seeds and embryos, see Khan (1970), Farooq (1965, 1966), Farooq and Bilquis (1966 and references) and Degtjareva et al. (2004a), for some chemistry, see Damtoft et al. (1994), for pollen, see Rodondi et al. (2010: Pinguicula), and for general information, see Goebel (1891: Utricularia), Fischer et al. (2004b), McPherson (2008: Pinguicula, 2010), and the Carnivorous Plants Database.

Phylogeny. For general phylogeny of Lentibulariaceae, see Jobson et al. (2003), Müller et al. (2004, 2006b), and also Müller and Borsch (2005a). Cieslak et al. (2005) and Degtjareva et al. (2006) discuss the phylogeny and evolution of Pinguicula and Reut and Jobson (2010) that of Utricularia subgenus Polypompholyx; for an account of Genlisea, see Fleischmann (2012).

Classification. For a classic revision of Utricularia, see Taylor (1989).

Synonymy: Pinguiculaceae Dumortier, Utriculariaceae Hoffmannsegg & Link